LESSONS 


NATURE 
STUDY 


3»0. Van  Liew 


copy  FOR  ADOPTION. 


LESSONS 


IN 


NATURE  STUDY 

BY 

OLIVER  P.  JENKINS 

AND 

VERNON  L.  KELLOGG 


SAN  FRANCISCO 

THE  WHITAKER  &  RAY  COMPANY 

(INCORPORATED) 
IQOO 


COPYRIGHT  1900 
— BY — 

OLIVER  P.  JENKINS 

—AND— 
VBRNON  I,.  KBLLOGG 

EDUCATION  UEPT, 


PREFACE. 


At  a  time  when  so  many  books  are  appearing  in  Nature 
Study,  some  sort  of  apology  is  due  for  proposing  to  add  another 
to  the  list.  There  is  some  extenuation  in  the  fact  that  the  book 
was  not  premeditated  as  such.  What  is  here  presented  began  as 
a  series  of  oral  lessons  by  one  of  the  authors  given  to  classes  of 
children.  These  lessons  were  afterwards  put  into  manuscript 
form  for  the  use  of  the  Oakland  (Cal.)  schools,  later  they  were 
used  as  leaflets  printed  by  the  Oakland  School  Department,  and 
finally  were  included  in  the  report  of  Supt.  J.  W.  McClymonds. 
Finally,  answering  an  apparent  demand  for  a  wider  use  of  the 
lessons,  both  the  authors  revised  and  extended  the  lessons  and 
had  them  illustrated  by  competent  artists,  and  a  part  of  the  papers 
under  the  new  form  were  published  in  the  Western  Journal  of  Edu- 
cation. Since  the  publication  of  the  series  in  the  Journal  began, 
there  has  seemed  to  be  a  demand  for  the  lessons  that  justified 
gathering  them  together  in  this  more  convenient  form. 

The  selection  of  the  particular  topics  here  included  is  not  to  be 
interpreted  as  an  opinion  of  the  authors  that  they  are  the  essential 
topics,  or  that  they  are  the  most  important,  since  it  is  evident  that 
a  number  of  lists  of  equally  important  or  interesting  objects  could 
be  made.  They  have  been  selected  as  the  result  of  long  contin- 
ued experimenting  with  children  in  different  grades  of  the  public 
schools.  If  merit  attaches  to  this  list,  it  is  that,  the  topics  in  it 
have  been  used  as  here  treated  with  success,  repeatedly,  in  the 

544178 


actual  work  of  the  school.  One  of  the  authors  has  personally 
presented  most  of  these  lessons  to  classes  of  children  in  the 
schools ;  and  has  observed  the  whole  of  this  course  as  given  by 
many  teachers.  At  a  time  when  there  is  so  little  of  precedent  in 
the  way  of  nature  study  and  so  much  that  is  still  only  in  the  form 
of  proposal,  anything  which  comes  from  actual  experience  must 
be  of  value  from  that  very  fact. 

The  authors  are  under  the  greatest  obligation  to  Miss  E.  B. 
McFadden,  Principal  of  Nature  Study  in  the  Oakland  schools, 
who  has  for  some  years  enthusiastically  given  and  supervised 
giving  these  lessons  in  the  various  school  grades.  It  is  very 
largely  thru  the  actual  work  of  experimenting  by  the  teachers  of 
Oakland  under  the  direction  of  Miss  McFadden  that  the  authors 
feel  confident  that  the  topics  as  given  here  can  be  used  with  suc- 
cess. The  provisional  course  of  study  given  in  the  Appendix  is 
based  on  the  Oakland  experience. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  to  outline  actual  lessons,  nor, 
except  as  suggested  in  an  appendix,  to  point  out  the  portions  to 
be  assigned  to  the  different  grades,  but  rather  to  give  only  a  simple 
treatment  of  the  subject  for  the  teacher's  use  with  some  suggestion 
as  to  methods.  The  lessons  must  be  considered  as  simply  sugges- 
tive and  by  no  means  as  comprehensive.  The  Appendix  already 
referred  to  suggests  the  allotment  to  the  different  grades. 

The  fragmentary  treatment  of  the  subjects  and  the  lack  of 
system  in  their  arrangement  is  designedly  carried  out  to  illustrate 
the  method  which  experience  with  children  points  out  as  the  best 
method  in  which  to  proceed.  Kven  at  the  risk  of  being  monoton- 
ous it  is  stated  now,  and  will  be  more  than  once  repeated,  thatt 


with  the  earlier  grades  at  least,  the  lessons  must  be  fragmentary, 
oh  one  simple  phenomenon  at  a  time,  without  care  for  its  rela- 
tions, and  the  lessons  should  not  be  successive  on  one  topic,  but 
interspersed  with  those  on  different  topics.  Convenience  of  treat- 
ment for  the  teacher's  use  in  the  following  lessons  has  led  to  a 
continuous  account  in  some  cases.  In  the  school  work,  this 
should  be  broken  up  as  suggested.  It  hardly  need  be  added  that 
the  book  is  designed  as  an  aid  to  teachers  and  parents  or  others 
directing  Nature  Study  work  and  not  as  a  Nature  Study  reader. 

The  chapters  under  the  titles  :  The  Mosquito,  Rearing  In- 
sects in  the  School  Room,  Some  Water  Insects,  How  to  make  a 
Collection  of  Insects,  About  Spiders,  How  Insects  Breathe,  and 
Birds  were  written  by  Professor  Kellogg,  and  Professor  Jenkins 
is  responsible  for  the  remainder  of  the  book. 

The  drawings,  with  the  few  exceptions  noted  at  the  proper 
places,  were  drawn  from  nature  by  Mr.  W.  S.  Atkinson  and  Miss 
Mary  Wellman. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Page 

Introduction 1 

Making  a  Beginning 5 

The  Dandelion 7 

The  Mosquito 12 

Seeds 22 

How  to  Make  a  Collection  of  Insects 30 

Fungi 35 

Bearing  Insects  in  the  Schoolroom 45 

The  Bee  and  the  Lupine 51 

Some  Water  Insects 60 

Heat 79 

Currents  in  Air  and  Water 87 

Solution  and  Crystallization 95 

About  Spiders * 103 

Plants  without  Flowers 120 

Flowering  Plants   .    .    .    . 128 

Parasitic  Plants 135 

Eggs  of  Frogs,  Toads  and  Salamanders  .  .    . 137 

Snails  and  Slugs    .    . 139 

Earthworms .  140 

Covering  of  Animals 141 

Marine  Life 145 

Ants'  Nests 147 

Gases 149 

Magnetism 158 

The  Pendulum  .  ,161 


TABLE  OP  CONTENTS—  Continued. 

Page 

Soap  Bubbles jg2 

Metals  and  Minerals jgg 

The  Moon jgg 

Pressure  of  Air  and  Liquids 171 

How  Insects  Breathe 174 

Birds J77 

APPENDIX. 

A  Provisional  Nature  Study  Course  Arranged  by  Grades.  ...  ,183 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  conviction  that  nature  study  should  form  a  part  of  the 
school  course* is  growing  stronger  every  year.  Knowledge  of 
nature  as  embodied  in  the  sciences  has  grown  to  be  a  vast  and 
important  part  of  the  sum  of  human  knowledge.  This  knowledge 
completely  dominates  our  material  life,  and  profoundly  influences 
our  intellectual  life.  In  the  light  of  these  facts  it  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at  that  there  should  be  a  demand  that  a  study  of 
nature  should  form  a  part  of  the  education  of  the  child.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  hard  to  understand  why  such  study 
is  still  so  widely  neglected,  or  at  best  receives  such  small  consid- 
eration. But  the  present  widespread  serious  movement  in  this 
direction  can  never  be  completely  checked,  and  it  must  be  that 
there  is  in  progress  a  real  reform  in  school  courses  in  this  re- 
gard. 

The  question  of  the  permanence  of  nature  study  in  the  school 
course  seems  to  be  settled,  and  it  remains  to  prepare  for  the  work 
of  such  a  course.  This  is  no  easy  task  and  all  attempts  for  some 
time  to  come  must  be  regarded  as  tentative  rather  than  final  solu- 
tions. To  select  from  a  vast  body  of  knowledge  those  portions 
that  both  best  represent  that  knowledge,  and  are  at  the  same 
time  best  adapted  to  the  powers  of  the, pupils  in  a  progressive 
educational  course,  would  require  greater  wisdom  and  skill  than 
exists.  We  are  left  to  make  the  best  selection  possible,  try  it  in 
our  schools,  and  by  means  of  our  successes  and  failures  with  it 
correct  from  time  to  time  our  work.  Thus  there  may  grow  up  in 
time  from  extended  experience,  critically  studied,  a  course  in 
nature  study  approaching  the  ideal.  However,  there  are  certain 
matters  in  regard  to  such  a  course  that  seem  clear,  and  in  any 
suggested  arrangement  regard  should  be  given  them.  Some  of 
the  most  important  are  presented  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

Nature  study  in  some  form  should  form  part  of  the  daily 
work  of  each  grade.  But  little  advance  can  be  hoped  from  only 
occasional  lessons,  or  lessons  at  long  intervals,  as  once  a  week. 
Nature  study  should,  as  with  the  other  principal  subjects  of  the 


2  NATURE   STUDY 

school  curriculum,  be  daily  and  continuous  in  order  to  work  out 
the  growth  and  development  for  which  it  is  particularly  adapted. 

It  should  be  carefully  adapted  to  the  nature  and  powers  of 
grades  where  it  is  represented.  In  the  lower  grades  nature  study 
should  not  be  carried  on  in  the  method  of  any  of  the  formal 
sciences.  This  would  insure  failure.  It  is  only  with  a  wide  ex- 
perience with  natural  phenomena  and  a  certain  maturity  of  mind, 
that  the  organization  of  the  accumulated  facts  into  a  science  is  to 
be  accomplished  with  profit. 

The  work  in  the  elementary  grades  should  be  with  objects 
and  experiments  treated  simply  as  phenomena.  These  furnish 
the  material  for  exercises  in  accurate  seeing  and  clear  thinking. 
The  phases  of  the  phenomena  should  be  within  the  child's 
interests  and  powers.  The  child's  interest  in  nature  cannot  be 
that  of  an  adult,  and  much  less  will  it  be  that  of  one  who  has 
long  been  a  student  of  nature.  This  fact  makes  it  difficult  for 
the  adult,  altho  himself  a  student  of  nature,  to  select  the  work 
that  can  be  most  profitably  used  with  children.  We  shall  fail  if 
we  do  not  keep  within  the  limits  of  the  child's  interests.  We 
shall  fail  if  we  do  not  make  use  of  that  in  nature  which  has  real 
significance.  The  teacher  should  have  a  loving  sympathy  with 
the  child,  and  at  the  same  time  a  clear  knowledge  of  the  little  bit 
of  nature  he  makes  use  of  in  his  work. .  He  must  attempt  to 
understand  the  child's  nature,  its  demands  and  its  rights,  and 
seek  to  meet  those  demands  and  respect  the  rights. 

However,  it  is  even  more  of  an  error  to  regard  the  child  as 
less  serious  and  less  capable  than  he  really  is,  as  appears  to  be 
the  case  with  some  writers  and  teachers  in  nature  study  who 
attempt  to  ''write  down  to  children."  This  so-called  writing 
down  to  children  takes  various  disagreeable  forms.  Some  teachers 
appear  to  think  that  nothing  but  a  joke  will  interest  a  child.  By 
them  all  nature  is  treated  as  a  huge  joke,  but,  it  must  be  confessed, 
a  rather  poor  one.  Thru  all  their  lessons  there  is  a  constant 
straining  to  be  funny,  with  the  usual  success  of  trying  to  find  a 
joke  where  there  is  none. 

Others  are  impressed  with  the  necessity  of  "being  lively." 
Now  liveliness  is  wholly  to  be  commended  when  inspired  by  the 
subject  and  the  class.  In  fact,  it  is  hard  to  avoid  a  normal 
degree  of  it  if  one  truly  feels  the  situation.  But  "being  lively" 


INTRODUCTION  3 

for  its  own  sake,  is  the  hollowest  kind  of  mockery.  It  leads  to  a 
disregard  for  the  truth  in  the  striving  after  sensational  statements 
and  bizarre  comparisons.  The  constant  beating  of  gongs  and 
shaking  of  tambourines  drcwns  out  the  sweetest  voices  of  nature 
to  which  she  alone  can  give  tongue. 

Still  others  seem  to  believe  that  nature's  phenomena  can  not 
appeal  to  children  unless  the  various  agents  are  personified  and 
made  to  march  before  the  children  in  the  form  of  kings,  princes, 
fairies  or  other  questionable  shapes.  This  must  always  result  in 
failure  as  far  as  nature  study  teaching  is  concerned,  and  on  the 
other  hand  can  not  have  the  charm  and  good  of  true  fairy  stories. 
Ingenuously  worked  out  battles  between  the  marshaled  hosts  of 
the  Frost  King  and  the  Heat  Emperor  or  an  account  of  the  adven- 
tures of  Fanny  Violet  and  Billy  June  Bug  have  about  as  much  in 
them  for  coming  close  to  nature  as  would  a  marvelous  account  of 
how  the  Jolly  little  Fraction  made  trouble  for  the  Sullen  Giant 
Rule  of  Three  for  getting  even  a  child's  view  of  number 
relations.  A.11  these  means  are  not  only  wholly  unnecessary, 
but  they  defeat  the  purposes  of  nature  study  and  prevent  the 
accomplishment  of  just  that  special  good  which  it  can  do.  The 
child  is  as  interested  in  the  real  facts  and  phenomena  of  nature 
when  he  can  see  them  clearly,  as  he  can  possibly  be  in  the  array 
of  any  imaginary  incongruities. 

It  is  very  important  that  not  too  much  be  attempted  at  a  time. 
It  is  a  common  error  to  bring  too  much  into  a  single  lesson.  One 
thing  at  a  time  seen  clearly,  should  be  the  rule.  Time  must  be 
given  the  pupil  to  see  and  enjoy.  Progress  in  the  power  to  deal 
with  facts  successfully  is  a  matter  of  growth.  Growth  requires 
assimilation,  and  assimilation  demands  time.  Hurrying  over  a 
a  thing  before  the  undrilled  powers  of  the  child  have  grasped 
what  is  before  him,  is  losing  a  fine  educational  opportunity. 

In  the  lower  grades  the  lessons  should  be  brief  in  addition 
to  being  simple. 

Experience  has  clearly  shown  that  it  is  better  in  the  elemen- 
tary grades  to  avoid  keeping  the  lessons  on  the  same  group  of 
phenomena  for  a  very  long  time.  The  children  soon  become 
weary  of  a  subject  which  is  thus  brought  up  day  after  day,  and 
nothing  is  more  inimical  to  success  in  teaching  then  such  a  feel- 
ing. The  lessons  must  be  fragmentary  and  the  subject  frequently 
changed. 


4  NATURE  STUDY 

While  this  method  may  seem  a  haphazard  one,  it  need  by  no 
means  be  so.  The  order  of  presenting  the  facts  need  not  inter- 
fere with  good  judgment  in  their  selection  and  in  the  final  group- 
ing of  the  facts  according  to  their  relations. 

Above  all  the  nature  study  lessons  should  not  be  undertaken 
without  the  object.  It  is  nature  that  is  to  help  the  child,  and  if 
the  bit  of  nature  on  which  the  lesson  is  based  is  absent,  nothing 
can  make  up  for  the  loss. 

Equally  important  with  the  presence  of  the  object  is  the  secur- 
ing of  the  activity  of  child  in  relation  to  it.  Indeed  the  success  of 
the  nature  study  teacher  is  complete,  when  the  object  and  the 
child  are  brought  together,  and  the  child  is  awakened  to  work 
thoroly  with  this  bit  of  nature.  The  skill  to  induce  the  normal 
activity  of  the  child  is  the  essence  of  teaching.  Many  a  teacher 
makes  the  mistake  of  considering  that  what  he  says  is  of  the  ut- 
most importance  and  can  not  be  left  out,  and  further,  that  no  one 
but  him  can  perform  the  little  experiments  just  right.  Conse- 
quently he  teaches  and  does  so  much,  and  does  it  so  long  and  so 
loudly,  that  the  room  is  filled  with  him.  Now  the  truth  is,  that 
what  the  teacher  talks  is  of  very  little  importance,  but  what  he 
succeeds  in  getting  the  pupil  to  do  and  think  is  of  the  utmost 
importance.  There  is  no  work  of  the  school  so  well  adapted  to 
bring  out  the  activity  of  the  child  as  nature  study,  and  it  would 
be  a  pity  if  the  exceptional  opportunities  it  offers  for  the  best 
work  of  the  school  were  lost  by  simply  not  giving  the  pupil  the 
chance  to  do  what  he  would  do  so  willingly. 

To  sum  up:  The  work  in  nature  study  should  be  daily;  each 
lesson  should  cover  only  that  small  bit  of  observation  that  can  be 
clearly  seen  and  understood;  the  lesson  should  be  brief  with  the 
lower  grades;  it  must  be  fragmentary;  the  topics  should  be  fre- 
quently changed ;  the  lesson  must  always  be  adapted  to  the  child's 
powers  and  interests;  it  should  be  with  a  real  bit  of  nature;  and 
above  all,  the  great  aim  should  be  to  induce  the  child  to  work  foi 
himself  with  hand,  eye  and  mind  with  the  bit  of  nature  before 
him. 


Making  a  Beginning. 

AFTER  one  has  decided  to  place  Nature  Study  in  the  day's 
program  the  first  question  generally  is,  " Where  shall  I  be- 
gin? "  The  answer  "Begin  anywhere,"  is  a  correct  one  but 
not  a  satisfactory  one.  Anywhere  is  a  large  country  and  one  is  soon 
lost  in  it.  It  is  only  fair  that  those  who  urge  a  beginning  should 
point  out  a  visible  tangible  point  to  start  from.  The  only  reason 
I  would  hesitate  to  select  such  a  point  is  that  it  might  bethought  I 
considered  that  particular  point  an  essential  beginning.  Let  me 
indicate  one  way  in  which  a  beginning  may  be  made.  First,  the 
teacher  will  look  out  over  the  field  of  Nature  and  consider,  at 
least  in  a  general  way,  what  kind  of  facts  he  expects  to  make  use 
of.  These  facts  will  be,  of  course,  phenomena  either  of  the  life  of 
plants,  of  the  life  of  animals,  or  of  inorganic  nature.  It  will  be 
hoped  that  in  the  course  of  time  enough  of  the  phenomena  in  each 
of  these  realms  will  be  seen  clearly  enough  to  understand  some  of 
the  larger  relations  of  each,  such  as  growth,  development,  adapta- 
tion, succession  and  the  like. 

With  such  conceptions  in  mind  he  will  find  on  any  day 
during  any  season,  simple  phenomena  which  just  at  that  time 
may  be  used  as  a  beginning  in  training  in  accurate  seeing  and  clear 
thinking.  These  at  the  same  time  may  serve  as  valuable  facts 
which  later  will  be,  with  other  similar  ones,  an  introduction  to  im- 
portant generalizations. 

Let  me  illustrate  from  the  life  of  plants. 

Thru  the  summer  and  fall  various  plants  are  busy  distribut- 
ing their  seeds.  They  have  manifold  ways  of  doing  this.  Each 
method  is  an  ingenious  contrivance  adapted  to  certain  conditions. 
For  example  the  large  number  of  plants  of  California  are  so  suc- 
cessful in  this  work  that  against  multitudes  of  enemies  and  ad- 
verse circumstances  they  manage  to  hold  their  own  year  after 
year  and  many  of  them  have  done  so  for  ages.  The  whole  sub- 
ject of  plant  distribution  is  a  great  one  and  is  far  reaching  in  its 


6  NATURE  STUDY. 

relations.  Now  as  you  look  out  on  the  plant  inhabitants  of  Cali- 
fornia you  think  of  these  questions  and  you  are  prepared  to  make 
your  beginning  with  a  simple  lesson  on  the  first  plant  you  find 
distributing  its  seeds.  That  one  of  course  might  be  any  one  of  a 
great  number  that  are  at  hand.  To  see  what  might  happen  to 
me  in  this  line  were  I,  to-day,  to  make  a  beginning,  I  have  just 
taken  a  short  walk.  This  has  brought  me  across  a  lawn  in 
which  are  growing  a  number  of  dandelions,  some  in  bud,  some 
in  bloom,  and  some  with  erect  stalks  bearing  the  familiar  downy 
globes  ready  to  break  up  and  sail  away  with  the  first  puff  of  wind. 
This  dandelion  shall  be  the  beginning  lesson. 


The  Lesson — The  Dandelion. 


First:  For  yourself,  on  the  lawn  or  wherever  you  find  it,  care- 
fully observe  all  you  can  of  the  plant,  how  it  grows,  where  the 
bud  forms,  and  the  different  stages  of  growth  of  the  different  parts 
of  the  flowers,  the  unfolding  of  the  bud  to  the,  formation  of  the 
ripened  seeds. 

While  you  may  observe  a  number  of  interesting  things  in  its 
study,  make  up  your  mind  firmly  to  attempt  in  the  one  lesson  one 
thing  only,  for  example,  the  method  by  which  the  seed  is  distri- 
buted, and  the  growth  of  the  apparatus  by  which  it  is  carried. 
With  the  first  three  grades  of  pupils  make  two  or  three  lessons 
even  of  this  one  small  group  of  phenomena. 

Provide  abundant  material  so  that  each  pupil  may  have 
enough  to  make  out  the  points  you  wish  him  to  see. 

Don't  "teach"but  lead  the  pupil  to  see  clearly:  the  seed  in  its 
place;  the  parts  it  flies  with;  how  easily  a  current  of  air  will  carry 
it  (experiment  with  a  current  of  air  made  with  the  breath  or  with 
a  fan). 

Now  further  lead  him'to  see  how  thru  the  bud  to  the  ripened 
head  the  downy  part  grows  to  its  mature  form,  how  at  first  it  is,  on 
a  single  undeveloped  seed,  a  minute  bundle  of  soft  down  without  a 
stem,  how  later  the  stem  of  the  "umbrella"  grows,  how  at  first 
the  umbrella  is  closed  up  tight,  and  opens  only  when  its  stem  is 
grown  and  the  seed  is  mature.  Have  him  also  see  that  at  first 
when  the  flowers  open  they  are  raised  up  by  the  stalk.  (If  there  has 
been  no  lessons  on  flowers  previous  to  this  do  not  go  into  the 
structure  of  the  flower  at  this  time,  farther  than  to  show  that  the 
dandelion  blossom  is  a  bunch  or  head  of  many  small  flowers. ) 
Later  as  the  seeds  begin  to  mature  and  the  downy  part  to  develop 
the  flowers  close  and  the  hollow  stem  of  the  head  of  flowers  bends 
over  and  lies  close  to  the  ground  hiding  it  until  the  seeds  ripen. 
But  just  as  the  seeds  mature  the  flower  stalk  becomes  erect  and 
grows  in  length  raising  the  flower  head  high,  which  then  opens  and 


NATURE  STUDY. 


Pig.  1.  The  Dandelion:  a,  bud;b,  head  of  flowers;  c,  after  flowering,  head  closed  again, 
stalk  bent  over,  stems  of  balloons  growing,  seeds  ripening;  d,  seeds  ripened,  stalk 
erect  and  lengthened. 


THE   DANDELION. 


Fig.  2.  The  Dandelion;  a,  enlarged  view  of  i  single  flower  of  dandelion,  flower  head 
snowing  at  >.  he  bottom  the  down  on  short  stem  on  the  top  of  the  seed;  b.  enlarged  view 
of  seed,  balloon  and  its  stalk  cut  away;  c,  ripened  seed  with  balloon  completed  ready 
to  fly. 

as  each  umbrella  opens  out  the  seeds  become  very  loosely  attached, 
and  all  is  very  ready  for  a  puff  of  wind  to  blow  them  away. 

If  all  this  is  made  out  distinctly  from  material  in  hand,  there 
will  be  one  good  example  clearly  seen  of  a  plant  putting  forth  a 
great  deal  of  ingenious  effort  to  scatter  its  seeds  to  the  wind. 

After  first  lessons  on  the  dandelion,  the  pupils  may  be  set  to 
finding  other  seeds  which  have  either  similar  or  quite  different 
means  of  distribution.  Have  them  gather  these  themselves  and 
explain  from  their  own  observation  to  the  rest  of  the  class  the 
method  each  seed  employs. 

You  will  no  doubt  be  surprised  to  see  the  number  01  different 
kinds  that  may  thus  be  brought  in,  whether  the  school  is  in  the 
country  or  in  the  city.  A  collection  can  be  made  and  arranged 
for  exhibition,  But  it  is  best  that  that  disappear  by  the  beginning 
of  another  year,  so  that  the  new  classes  may  begin  afresh. 

Now,  on  your  walk  to  seek  a  beginning  lesson  you  may  not 
find  a  dandelion,  but  you  surely  will  find  some  plant  which  will 
serve  as  well.  There  are  several  that  have  downy  umbrellas  which 


to 


NATURE  STUDY. 


Pig.  8.    Seeds;  ft,  a  pair  of  maple  seeds  with  wings;  b,  a  seed  from  a  Monterey  pine  cone 
with  a  wing;  c,  a  bur  of  the  cockle-TLmr  with  a  pair  of  jaws  and  many  hooks. 

act  as  balloons,  others,  as  the  maple,  have  wings,  others  as  burs 
of  various  kinds,  have  hooks  to  fasten  on  clothing,  and  still 
others  are  carried  by  water. 

For  the  first  lesson  choose  a  seed  that  is  abundant  and  has 
some  conspicuous,  easily  understood  means  of  traveling  and  treat 
it  something  alter  the  manner  suggested  with  the  dandelion.  Do 
not  be  deterred  in  your  choice  because  you  do  not  know  the  name 
of  the  plant,  as  that  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  lesson.  Use  the 
name  the  children  use. 


THE   DANDELION  II 

The  beginning  may  be  made,  not  with  plants  but  with  some 
animal.  As  plants  and  animals  and  inanimate  things  go  thru  their 
changes  slowly  it  is  best,  even  necessary,  to  have  several  things 
going  at  once  that  they  may  keep  up  a  supply  of  lessons.  For 
example,  the  gathering  of  the  seeds  may  proceed  while  the  eggs  of 
a  mosquito  are  hatching  and  the  larvae  are  growing. 


12 


The  Mosquito. 

Obtaining  and  Caring  for  Study  Material. 

The  mosquito  is  an  always  available  and 
thoroly  interesting  object  of  nature  study.  At 
any  time  of  the  year,  and  in  almost  any  small 
pool  of  stagnant  water,  the  familiar  "wrig- 
glers," which  are  the  larvae  or  first  young 
stage,  of  the  mosquito,  can  be  found.  "A  ditch 
a  wood  choked  with  fallen  leaves  is  one  of 


i..-1  m 


the  best  hunting  grounds."  Some  of  the 
material  from  which  the  following  notes 
were  made  came  from  a  watering  trough  in  a  pasture,  and 
some  of  it  came  from  a  barrel  of  water  containing  considerable 
decaying  matter.  In  many  localities  it  is  necessary  only  to  ex- 
pose an  open  pail  or  cask  of  water  for  a  few  days  in  order  to  get  a 
thriving  colony  of  mosquitoes.  The  mosquito  larvae  (wrigglers) 
are  so  distinctive  in  structure  and  manner  that  no  trouble  will  be 
had  thru  mistaking  other  aquatic  insect  larva  or  other  aquatic 
animals  for  them. 

By  reference  to  the  figure  of  the  larva  (fig.  5)  this  characteris- 
tic appearance  can  be  .got  acquainted  with;  in  addition,  the 
characteristic  wriggling  of  the  body  when  the  creature  is  mov- 
ing thru  the  water,  and  the  hanging  head  downward  from  the  sur- 
face when  at  rest,  are  manners  which  make  the  mosquito  larvae 
readily  recognizable. 

Besides  the  larvae,  there  may  be  found  both  the  eggs  and  the 
pupae  (second  young  stage).  The  eggs  are  in  small  masses  which 
float  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  resembling  at  careless  glance 
nothing  else  so  much  as  a  largish  bit  of  soot.  These  little,  float- 
ing, sooty  bits  are  composed  of  a  single  layer  of  slender,  elongate 
eggs  standing  on  end,  and  loosely  fastened  together  to  form  a  nar- 
row, irregular,  little  raft,  slightly  concave  on  the  upper  surface. 
The  pupa  (fig.  6)  is  composed  of  a  big  bulbous  head  and  a 


THE  MOSQUITO. 


short  slender  tail.  It  swims  thru  the  water  by  making  quick, 
violent  jerks  with  the  slender  tail,  and  when  at  rest  floats  at  the 
surface  of  the  water  with  the  back  of  the  big  head  end  uppermost 
and  the  slender  tail  hanging  down. 

The  wrigglers  and  eggs  and  pupae  can  be  kept  in  wide 
mouthed  glass  jars  (fruit  jars,  glasses,  etc.)  two- thirds  filled  with 
water,  (fig.  4)  The  water  should  not  be  too  good,  or  the  wrig- 
glers will  lack  food;  water  from  the  pool  or  ditch  in  which  the 


FIG.  5.    Larra  ("wriggl«r")  of  mosquito;  a,  arfenna;  t,  tuft  of  hairs;  e,  eye;  b  t,  breathlfcf 

tube. 


NATURE  STUDY. 


wrigglers  were  found  is  the  best  for  the  purpose.  No  special  feeding 
is  necessary;  the  organic  matter  in  the  stagnant  water  suffices.  Do 
not  put  too  many  wrigglers  into  too  small  a  jar  of  water.  The 
mouth  of  the  jar  containing  pupae  should  be  covered  with  cheese- 
cloth, so  as  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  winged  mosquitoes  which 
will  emerge  from  the  pupae.  With  half  a  dozen  jars  of  material, 
the  life  history  and  habits  of  the  mosquito  can  be  admirably  ob- 
served. All  of  the  changes  of  the  mosquito  from  egg  to  adult  are 
completed  in  three  or  four  weeks. 

Observing  and  Questioning. 

What  is  the  wrig- 
gling of  the  wrigglers? 
Evidently  simply  the 
peculiar  mode  of 
swimming  or  moving 
thru  the  water.  It  is 
a  violent  lashing  of 
the  tail  end  of  the 
body.  The  wrigglers 
move  in  any  direction 
at  will  by  means  of 
this  lashing.  If  a 

»J«.  The  Pupa;  b  t,  breathing  tube;  sf,  swimming  flaps   Wriggler    W  h  i  C  h    1  S 

at  the  tip  of  the  body.  swimming  thru  the 

water  stops  "wriggling"  i.  e.  stops  swimming,  what  happens?  It 
slowly  sinks.  (If  it  touches  the  walls  of  the  jar  it  may  not  sink 
because  of  the  friction. )  Why  does  it  sink  ?  And  why  so  slowly? 
It  is  evidently  heavier  (denser)  than  water,  but  only  slightly  so. 
There  are,  however,  always  many  wrigglers  hanging  head 
downward  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water;  hanging  down  in 
fact  from  the  surtace  of  the  water.  What  are  they  doing  ? 
Breathing. 


s.  f. 


9.  f. 


THE  MOSQUITO.  15 

You  can  see  that  a  little  stem-like  process  (fig.  5  b.t.) 
projects  from  very  near  the  posterior  tip  of  the  body  and  the  end 
of  this  process  reaches  the  water's  surface.  This  process  is  a 
breathing  tube.  (I  shall  describe  it  later,  more  in  detail.)  The 
mosquito  does  not  breathe  thru  its  mouth,  nor  thru  any  organs  on 
its  head,  but  thru  this  tube  on  the  tail  end  of  the  body.  It  is 
necessary  for  the  wriggler  to  come  to  the  surface  of  the  water  to 
breathe.  If  the  wriggler  is  prevented  by  any  means  from  coming 
to  the  surface,  it  soon  drowns.  Many  wrigglers  too  weak  to  swim 
to  the  top  of  the  water  drown. 

But  how  can  the  wriggler  remain  thus  at  the  surface  without 
sinking  if  it  is  heavier  than  water  and  always  sinks  when  it  stops 
wriggling?  It  holds  on  to  the  tense  surface  film  of  the 
water.  The  tip  of  the  breathing  tube  projects  slightly  above  the 
surface  when  the  wriggler  comes  up  to  breathe.  The  slightly 
expanded  edges  of  the  mouth  of  the  tube  are  caught  by  the  sur- 
face film,  and  the  body  of  the  wriggler  supported  at  the  surface. 
This  tense  surface  film  exists  because  the  molecules  of 
water  which  constitute  the  surface  layer  of  the  water  are  more 
strongly  attracted  laterally  by  each  other  and  downward  by  the 
water  molecules  beneath  than  by  the  molecules  of  air  which  lie 
directly  over  them.  It  is  easier,  however,  to  prove  the  existence 
of  this  tense  surface  film  than  to  explain  it.  If  you  carefully  lay 
a  clean  needle  on  the  surface  of  water  it  will  not  sink  altho  much 
denser  than  water,  but  will  be  supported  by  the  surface  film.  If 
you  fill  a  tumbler  to  its  brim  you  can  still  add  more  water  (doing 
it  carefully)  and  so  heap  up  the  water  above  the  level  of  the  tum- 
bler's brim.  You  can  do  this  because  the  surface  film  extending 
over  the  water  from  edge  to  edge  holds  it  in  position.  If  you  dip 
your  finger  into  the  water  and  lift  it  up  all  the  water  does  not  run 
off"  but  a  large  drop  will  remain  hanging  to  your  finger.  The 
tense  surface  film  keeps  this  little  mass  of  water  together  in  the 
form  of  a  drop.  Many  aquatic  insects  and  other  animals  take  ad- 
vantage of  the  presence  of  this  surface  film  on  water.  The  water 


1 6  NATURE  STUDY. 

spiders   and  little  flies  which  run  quickly  about  on  the  surface  of 
quiet  pools  are  supported  by  the  surface  film. 

To  follow  the  habits  of  our  wriggler  in  relation  to  the 
surface  film,  we  see  that  despite  the  fact  that  the  wrigglers 
are  heavier  than  water  they  are  enabled  to  hold  themselves 
without  effort  at  the  surface  of  the  water  to  breathe.  And 
yet,  also  without  effort,  they  can  rest  on  the  bottom,  feed- 
ing on  the  decaying  matter  to  be  found  there.  Indeed,  be- 
cause they  are  heavier  than  water  when  they  are  at  the  surface 
breathing  they  always  hang  with  head  down  in  the  water,  and 
thus  can  Continue  feeding  on  the  organic  particles  that  are  float- 
ing everywhere  in  the  foul  water,  at  the  same  time  that  they  are 
breathing.  This  is  an  important  saving  of  time  to  the  mosquito. 
When  we  have  studied  insects  more  we  shall  know  that  insects  that 
go  thru  transformations  like  the  mosquito — metamorphosis  this 
transforming  is  called — do  almost  all  of  their  feeding  in  their  first 
young,  or  so-called  larval  stage.  For  example,  the  male  mosquito 
eats  almost  nothing  as  a  flying  insect,  (the  female  does  take  some 
food,  as  we  are  grievously  aware),  so  the  insect  must  not  lose 
much  time  in  its  first  young  stage  if  it  is  to  store  up  enough  food 
(as  fat)  in  this  stage  to  suffice  for  its  existence  thru  all  of  its  othei 
stages.  And  yet  so  active  a  creature  as  the  wriggler  must  have 
a  great  deal  of  oxygen  (taken  from  the  breathed-in  air)  to  keep  its 
life  fires  burning.  So  you  see  how  admirably  arranged  the  wrig- 
gler is  to  take  advantage  of  the  natural  conditions  under  which  it 
lives. 

Let  us  turn  to  the  other  kind  of  young  mosquitoes,  the  big- 
headed  ones,  the  pupae  (see  fig  6).  When  they  are  below  the  sur- 
face and  stop  wriggling,  what  do  they  do?  They  rise  to  the  surface. 
They  must  be  lighter  than  water  then.  Are  they  not  so  well  fitted 
for  their  life  as  the  wrigglers?  Or  is  there  a  difference  in  the  habits 
of  the  mosquito  in  its  two  young  stages?  Yes,  a  great  difference. 
The  pupae  take  no  food.  All  they  need  is  to  be  able  to  breathe,  and 
to  be  able  to  swim  quickly  away  from  any  ferocious  pursuer. 


THE   MOSQUITO.  IJ 

Note  that  as  they  lie  at  the  surface  it  is  not  the  posterior  tip  of  the 
body  which  touches  the  water,  but  the  back  or  upper  part  of  the 
bulbous  head  end.  How  do  they  breathe  then  ?  By  means  ot 
two  horn-like,  hollow  processes  that  project  from  the  back  of  the 
head  end.  In  this  they  differ  from  the  wriggler,  and  we  shall  see 
later  that  they  differ  in  many  other  details.  As  they  do  not  feed 
there  is  no  special  need  of  having  the  breathing  apparatus  at  one 
end  of  the  body  and  the  feeding  apparatus  at  the  other,  or  that 
the  head  should  hang  down  in  the  water  while  the  insect  is  breath  - 
ing.  But  is  there  any  special  advantage  in  having  the  pupa  float 
at  the  surface  with  the  back  of  the  large  head  end  of  the  body  up- 
permost ?  There  is, indeed;  it  is  more  than  an  advantage;  it  is  al- 
most a  necessity.  It  is  from  the  pupa  that  the  winged  mosquito 
comes.  Now  the  delicate  wings  of  the  mosquito  are  folded  up  in 
pads  (which  we  shall  later  study)  on  the  pupa.  These  wing  pads 
are  attached  to  the  upper  part  or  back  of  the  big  head  end  of  the 
pupa,  and  when  the  moi-quito  is  ready  to  emerge,  this  back  of  the 
big  head  end  of  the  pupa,  which  is  at  the  surface  of  the  water 
splits  longitudinally  and  the  back  ot  the  mosquito  with  the  deli- 
cate wings  slips  quickly  out  and  above  the  surface  of  the  water, 
without  getting  wetted.  The  delicate  wings  are  immediately  un- 
folded and  in  a  moment  or  two  the  mosquito  is  ready  to  fly  away. 
If  the  wings  were  drawn  out  of  the  pupal  sheath  in  the  water  it 
is  probable  that  few  mosquitoes  would  ever  be  able  to  fly.  Thus, 
you  see,  the  second  young  stage  of  the  mosquito,  the  pupa,  altho 
very  different  from  the  first  stage,  the  larva,  is  also  admirably 
arranged  for  the  successful  living  of  the  mosquito. 

I  have  constantly  referred  to  these  strange  wriggling  creatures 
inhabiting  foul  water  as  young  mosquitoes.  But  they  do  not  at 
all  look  like  mosquitoes;  they  live  in  water,  not  in  air;  their  habits 
are  very  different  from  those  of  the  mosquito.  How  do  I  know, 
how  do  you  know,  that  these  curious  wrigglers  are  young 
mosquitoes?  Simply  and  sufficiently  by  watching  one  of  these 
creatures  thru  its  life. 


NATURE   STUDY. 


If  you  put  one  of  these  little 
sooty  masses  of  eggs,  which  we 
have  found  floating  on  the  surface 
of  the  stagnant  water  in  the  leaf 
choked  ditch  or  pool,  or  watering 
trough, or  barrel,  by  itself,  into  a 
glass  with  some  water,  we  shall 
find  after  a  day  or  two  that  from 
each  egg  has  come  a  tiny  wrig- 
gler, that  is,  one  of  the  creatures 
we  have  been  calling  mosquitoes 
in  their  first  young  !or  larval 
stage.  (The  time  which  elapses 
from  the  laying  of  the  eggs  to 
the  hatching  of  the  wrigglers 
varies  with  the  species  of  mos- 
quito and  with  the  temperature. 
In  warm  weather  some  mosquito 
species  hatch  ia  as  few  as  twelve  hours. )  The  tiny  wrigglers 
wriggle,  they  go  to  the  bottom  to  feed,  they  rise  to  the  surface  to 
breathe;  they  grow  larger,  and,  what  we  have  not  before  noticed, 
they  shed  their  skin  or  moult.  They  shed  their  skin  several 
times  during  their  life  as  wrigglers.  The  duration  of  this  first 
young  stage  is  from  one  to  several  weeks.  If  the  glass  jars  con- 
taining the  eggs  and  wrigglers  be  kept  in  a  warm, sunny  window, 
the  changes  will  probably  be  more  readily  made  than  if  the  jars 
are  kept  at  a  lower  temperature.  After  eight  or  ten  days,  then, 
the  wrigglers  will  change  into  the  second  young  stage,  the  pupa, 
or  the  wrigglers  with  the  big  head  end.  The  pupae  live  for  two 
or  three  days,  most  of  the  time  floating  motionless  at  the  surface 
of  the  water.  Then  they  transform  into  the  winged  mosquito. 

(fig-  7-) 

Thus  simply  and  certainly  is  proved  that  the  sooty  egg  masses 
are  mosquito  eggs,  that  the  slender  wrigglers  are  the  young  mos- 


Fig  7 


The  Mosquito,  a,  antenna;  b, 
beak;  p,  palpus. 


THE   MOSQUITO  19 

quitoes  as  they  are  hatched  from  the  egg,  and  that  the  wrigglers 
with  the  big  head  end  are  young  mosquiloes  in  a  stage  following 
the  first  wriggler  stage,  and  from  which  the  winged  mosquito 
comes.  All  these  changes  the  children  may  see  for  themselves, 
and  all  in  three  or  four  weeks. 

I  have  said  that  the  larval  wrigglers  transform  into  the  pupal 
wrigglers,  and  that  the  pupal  wrigglers  transform  into  winged 
mosquitoes.  This  is  really  true,  but  as  seen  from  without,  as 
seen  by  the  children,  one  form  will  appear  to  is»ue  from  the  next 
preceding  form,  i.  e.  the  skin  of  the  larval  wriggler  will  split 
along  the  back  and  a  pupal  wriggler  will  come  out,  the  split 
empty  skin  of  the  larva  floating  away  on  the  water's  surface. 
Then  from  the  pupa  similarly  will  come  the  winged  mosquito, 
and  the  rent  pupal  skin  will  remain  floating  on  the  water.  This 
last  transformation  ought  to  be  watched  carefully.  From  the 
splitting  pupal  skin  will  appear  first  the  humped  back  of  the  mos- 
quito, then  slowly  and  carelully  the  head  with  its  bushy  feelers 
and  long  piercing  beak,  and,  finally,  the  long  slender  legs.  While 
all  this  is  going  on,  the  pupal  skin  serves  as  a  raft  upon  which 
the  soft-bodied,  damp  mosquito  is  safely  supported  until  its  wings 
and  legs  are  unfolded  and  dried  and  hardened,  and  it  is  ready  to 
fly  away. 

The  winged  mosquitoes  may  be  kept  some  days  in  the  hope 
that  they  will  lay  eggs,  but  this  hope  will  probably  not  be  realized. 
Only  rarely  do  mosquitoes  in  confinement  lay  eggs.  It  is  worth 
while  however,  to  make  the  trial,  altho  the  proof  that  the  eggs. 
and  wrigglers  are  mosquitoes  in  egg,  larval  and  pupal  stages  is 
complete  without  the  actual  observation  of  egg-laying. 

All  of  the  observations  we  have  so  far  undertaken  have  been. 
easily  made.  They  have  related  to  the  habits  and  the  life-history 
or  development  and  growth  of  the  mosquito.  There  are,  how- 
ever, some  other  interesting  observations  which  we  can  make,  but 
for  which  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  the  aid  ol  a  microscope. 
These  observations  relate  to  the  details  of  the  structure  of  the 


20  NATURE  STUDY 

wrigglers  and  winged  mosquitoes  and  are,  of  course,  not  well 
adapted  for  the  younger  children. 

As  the  wrigglers  hang  head  downward  from  the  surface  of  the 
water  there  can  be  seen,  with  unassisted  eye,  two  little  tufts  of 
hairs  projecting  from  the  head  which  are  usually  in  rapid  vibratory 
motion.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  movement  of  these  hair 
tufts  ?  If  a  wriggler  be  put  into  a  watch-glass  of  water  and  be 
examined  with  a  magnifier  the  head  will  be  seen  to  have  the 
appearance  shown  in  figure  5.  The  two  tufts  of  hairs,  t,  are  situ- 
ated at  the  sides  of  the  mouth  and  their  constant  vibration  is  for 
the  purpose  of  creating  little  currents  in  the  water,  which  are  di- 
rected towards  the  mouth  and  which  carry  food,  i.  e.,  tiny  parti- 
cles of  organic  matter,  into  the  mouth.  On  the  head  may  also  be 
seen  the  eyes,  e,  and  the  feelers  or  antennae,  a.  If  the  other  end, 
the  caudal  extremity,  of  the  wriggler  be  examined  it  will  be  found 
to  present  the  appearance  shown  by  the  lower  right  hand  portion 
of  figure  5.  In  the  finger-like  breathing  process  may  be  seen  the 
true  breathing  tube,  b.  t.  This  breathing  process  arises  from  the 
next  to  the  last  segment  of  the  body.  At  the  tip  of  the  last  seg- 
ment may  be  seen  four  small  leaf-like  flaps  whose  use  is  not  cer- 
tainly known  but  which  may  act  as  a  rudder  for  the  body.  The 
posterior  opening  of  the  alimentary  canal,  a.  c.,  is  located  in  this 
segment. 

Now  examine  a  pupa  (fig  6)  under  the  magnifier.  On  the 
large  head  end  of  the  body  may  be  seen  the  pair  of  breathing  tubes 
b.  t.,  previously  referred  to,  and  also  the  developing  wings  and 
legs  of  the  mosquito.  These  wings  and  legs  are  all  folded  closely 
together  and  are  covered  with  a  thin  membrane.  At  the  tail  end 
of  the  body  may  be  seen  the  two  large  swimming  flaps. 

Kill  a  few  winged  mosquitoes  and  examine  them  with  the 
magnifier  You  will  find  two  kinds,  in  general  appearance  very 
much  alike  but  differing  in  some  details;  the  most  obvious  differ- 
ence is  in  the  character  of  the  antennae.  Some  have  antennae  which 
bear  many  long  hairs  (6g.  7,  a. )  The  antennae  look  bushy.  These 


THE   MOSQUITO  21 

are  the  males.  The  females  have  comparatively  few  hairs  on  the 
antennae.  It  is  believed  that  the  mosquito  hears  by  means  of  these 
antennal  hairs.  In  addition  to  the  antennae,  observe  the  long, 
slender,  sucking  beak,  with  which  the  female  mosquito  pierces  the 
skin  of  animals  to  suck  their  blood.  If  mosquitoes  cannot  find  ani- 
mals then  they  live  on  the  sap  of  plants.  How  many  wings  has 
the  mosquito?  How  many  pairs  of  legs?  Most  insects  have  foul 
wings,  but  the  mosquito  has  a  pair  of  little  knobbed  projecting 
processes  instead  of  hind  wings.  These  knobbed  processes  arc 
called  balancers  and  they  are  believed  to  aid  the  mosquito  in 
directing  its  flight. 

The  details  of  structure  to  which  I  have  called  attention  are, 
perhaps,  the  ones  of  most  interest;  but  the  examination  of  the 
bodies  of  the  wrigglers  and  winged  mosquitoes  will  bring  forth 
many  questions  on  the  pait  of  the  pupils,  and  the  teacher  can  call 
attention  to  much  of  the  general  structural  condition  of  the  insect 
body. 


22 

Seeds. 

As  soon  as  the  fall  rains  come  we  have  sprouting  on  every 
side  the  many  forms  of  seeds  whose  distribution  has  been  studied. 
Consequently  among  the  plant  lessons  the  growing  of  seeds  may 
well  follow  those  on  distribution  of  seeds.  It  is  well  at  the  very 
start  for  the  teacher  to  have  in  mind  something  of  the  true  mean- 
ing of  the  seed. 

This  will  serve  as  the  best  guide  to  the  use  of  the  seed  and 
its  activities  as  lessons,  even  the  most  elementary.  The  full  under- 
standing of  the  significance  of  the  seed  would  include,  with  other 
things,  the  knowledge  of  that  part  of  its  structure  which  points 
to  the  relationships  of  the  seed-forming  plants  to  those  of  lower 
forms.  Such  matters  would  obviously  be  out  of  place  here 

The  view  of  the  seed  as  a  plant  itself,  being  a  phase  in  the 
existence  of  the  plant's  life  adapted  to  certain  conditions  is 
the  one  to  be  kept  in  mind.  These  conditions  are  those  con- 
nected with  its  distribution,  including  its  ability  to  remain  dor- 
mant a  long  time,  its  having  the  means  of  transportation  as 
already  studied  in  distribution,  and  its  preparation  for  making  a 
start  in  growth,  in  a  favorable  place,  and  continuing  this 
growth  until  its  organs  for  obtaining  food  from  the  air  and  the 
soil  are  well  developed.  This  view  will  give  us  direction  in  the 
study  of  the  structure  of  the  seed,  and  in  methods  of  observing 
the  activities  of  the  the  growth  of  its  parts. 

Of  the  two  lines  of  study  of  the  seed,  its  structure  and  its 
action  in  growth,  logically  it  might  be  considered  that  the  lessons 
on  structure  should  come  first.  It  will  be  found,  however,  that 
there  will  be  greater  interest  in  the  work  if  first  we  see  the  seed  in 
action  and  then  follow  with  the  seeking  out  of  the  parts  concerned 
in  th«  action. 

Growth  of  Seeds. 
Do  not  confine  the  lessons  to  one  form  of  seed  as  is  sometimes 


SEEDS 


Fig.  8.    Seeds  growing  between  sheets  of  glass  to  show  growth  of  root,  root-hair* 
and  root  tips. 

recommended,  but  have  a  number  of  forms  planted.  It  would  be 
well  for  the  pupils  to  use  many  of  the  seeds  gathered  during  the 
lessons  on  distribution  of  seeds,  allowing  them  to  select  as  they 
choose.  Among  the  number  it  would  be  well  to  have  squash 
or  pumpkin,  bean,  pea,  radish,  wheat,  corn,  acorn  and  pine  seeds. 
This  list  will  insure  having  seeds  oi  good  size,  and  those  which 
behave  differently  in  germinating. 

Explain  how  the  seeds  are  to  be  planted  in  boxes  or  pots  of 


NATURE:  STUDY 


rich  mellow  earth  and  to 
be  kept  properly  watered, 
and  in  a  warm  place,  but 
have  the  pupils  do  all  the 
work  of  preparation, 
planting  and  care  of  the 
boxes.  It  will  be  of  great 
advantage  to  have  a  large 
number  of  the  forms 
planted  you  expect  to 
work  most  with,  such  as 
squash,  bean  and  corn. 
The  seeds  planted  in 
boxes  will  give  ample 
means  for  observing  how 
the  seed  starts  to  grow, 
how  it  gets  out  of  the 
seed  leaves,  and  how  the 
stem  and  leaves  develop 
from  these. 

But  to  see  the  equally 
interesting  and  instruc- 
tive development  of  the 
root  with  its  branches, 
root  hairs  and  root  cap, 
some  other  method  of 
planting  is  necessary, 
since  digging  up  the  root 
destroys  some  of  the  very  things  necessary  to  be  seen.  For  study 
of  the  growth  of  the  root,  plant  a  few  seeds  in  earth  confined  be- 
tween two  sheets  of  glass  about  seven  by  eight  inches,  or  larger. 
The  sheets  of  glass  are  kept  apart  by  thin  strips  of  wood,  as  thick 
as  a  lead  pencil,  and  are  clamped  together  by  pieces  of  bent 
tin  or  tied  with  strings.  The  sheets  of  glass  might  also  be  held 


Fig.  9.    Seeds  grown  on  netting  just  touching  water 
in  the  jar,  showing  root,  root-haira  and  root  cap. 


SEEDS  25 

in  place  by  means  of  wooden  frames  with  grooves  sawed  in  for 
slipping  in  the  glass.  The  two  sides  are  to  be  kept  dark  with  a 
cloth  or  board  covering  except  when  observing  the  roots,  which 
may  well  be  seen  thru  the  glass. 

Another  means  for  seeing  the  growth  of  root  is  by  planting 
the  seeds  on  a  piece  of  netting  tied  over  the  mouth  of  a  jar  filled 
with  water  sufficiently  to  bring  the  water  just  in  contact  with  the 
seeds.  Seeds  planted  between  layers  of  cloth  or  blotting  paper 
kept  moist  will  grow  roots  of  considerable  size  and  allow  the  ex- 
amination of  root  hairs  and  root  cap. 

With  many  seeds  planted  in  the  various  ways  indicated,  and 
a  supply  of  seeds  for  successive  planting  to  study  out  phases 
that  were  missed  in  the  first  observation,  or  to  settle  questions  of 
doubt,  the  teacher  has  abundant  and  rich  material  for  many  les- 
sons, which,  interspersed  with  those  on  animals  and  minerals,  will 
extend  over  a  long  period. 

Now  what  is  to  be  looked  for  in  this  material?  First  is  to  be 
noted  just  how  the  different  seeds  "come  up."  Each  kind  of  seed 
has  the  problems  to  solve  of  getting  its  parts  out  of  the  seed  coats, 
its  first  root  started  downward  and  fixed  in  its  position  and  its 
young  stem  started  upward.  Have  the  pupils  note  carefully 
each  step  in  the  above  mentioned  process.  How  the  seed  coats 
are  moistened;  the  contents  swollen  with  the  imbibed  water;  the 
seed  coats  split  and  pried  open,  and  the  seed  leaves  with  the 
young  stem  and  the  minute  new  leaves  withdrawn  from  the  coats 
in  some  seeds;  in  others  the  seed  leaves  are  not  withdrawn  but  re- 
main in  the  seed  coat  and  the  ground,  the  root  and  stem  escaping 
however.  Find  out  also  how  these  steps  are  taken  with  corn, 
wheat  and  onion  seeds.  In  brief,  keeping  in  mind  that  the  grow- 
ing seed  is  a  living  thing  very  active,  and  active  too  with  purposes, 
have  the  pupils  over  and  over  again  on  different  seeds  watch  the 
series  of  actions  of  a  germinating  seed  and,  as  far  as  may  be  dis- 
covered, the  purpose  of  each  action. 


26  NATURE  STUDY 

The  Structure  of  the  Seed- 

For  making  out  the  parts  of  the  seed  make  use  both  of  dry 
seeds  and  of  those  that  have  been  soaked  in  water  for  some  hours. 
It  is  best  to  begin  with  the  larger  forms  such  as  beans,  peas,  01 
pumpkin  seeds. 

Have  the  pupils  see  that  the  seed  is  a  small  plant  ready  to 
grow,  but  wrapped  up  tightly  in  a  covering.  The  covering  has 
a  small  opening  at  one  point.  The  contained  plant  can  be  clearly 
seen  to  have  a  stem  bearing  leaves,  and  a  point  that  is  the  be- 
ginning of  the  root.  The  leaves  are  (in  the  bean,  pea  or  pump- 
kin) .first  two  large  thick  white  leaves  filling  the  main  part  of  the 
covering,  and  then  the  pair  of  minute  ones  which  are  to  be  the 
first  pair  above  the  seed  leaves.  Grains  of  corn  and  wheat  or  a 
pine  seed  will  show  a  different  arrangement  of  the  seed  leaves, 
the  first  having  only  one,  the  last  having  five.  The  seed  contains 
stored  up  nutrition.  Often,  as  in  the  bean,  this  nutrition  is  stored 
in  the  thick  seed  leaves,  but  in  others  as  in  the  morning  glory  it 
is  deposited  around  the  seed  leaves. 

The  parts  of  the  seed  as  known  in  botany  are,  as  illustrated 
in  the  bean,  for  example:  The  covering,  the  seed  coats;  the  two 
thick  seed  leaves,  the  cotyledons;  the  small  stem,  the  caulicle;  the 
part  above  the  cotyledons  bearing  the  minute  leaves,  the  plumule, 
the  point  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  caulicle  is  the  root  point. 
The  whole  minute  plant  as  it  lies  in  the  seed  is  called  the  embryo. 

Have  the  pupils  hunt  out  the  seed  leaves  in  many  forms  of 
seeds,  including  some  in  which  they  are  not  so  evident  as  in  the 
bean  and  squash,  such  for  example,  as  the  acorn,  walnut,  pecan, 
chestnut,  buckeye,  wild  cucumber.  The  germination  of  each  of 
these  nuts  is  very  interesting.  The  methods  used  by  the  buck- 
eye and  wild  cucumber  of  this  coast  are  apparently  so  widely  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  the  squash  and  bean  that  they  present  quite 
attractive  puzzles.  Who  in  the  schools  this  winter  will  solve 
them? 


SEEDS  27 

Each  kind  of  seed  has  a  habit  of  germination  peculiar  to  itself. 
To  discover  these  individual  ways  of  plants  is  to  become  person- 
ally acquainted  with  the  plants,  which  can  not  fail  to  beget  not 
only  an  interest  but  even  a  love  for  these  earnest  members  of 
Nature's  community.  This  interest  and  love  will  not  cease  with 
the  lessons  in  the  school,  but  will  be  a  source  of  wholesome 
pleasure  at  every  recurring  spring  time  thruout  life. 

The  embryo  plant  well  out  of  the  seedling  state,  leading  now 
an  independent  existence,  presents  us  with  other  lessons  inexhaus- 
tible for  our  school  work.  Some  of  these  we  shall  select  to  form  a 
part  of  this  course  to  be  treated  subsequently. 

Most  of  these  lessons  will  be  taken  from  the  adult  plants  as 
we  shall  find  them  in  gardens,  woods  and  fields.  There  are  some 
important  matters  which  may  be  noted  as  the  young  seedlings 
are  growing  in  the  boxes,  etc. 

Each  plant  on  leaving  the  seed,  each  in  its  own  way,  imme- 
diately begins  to  establish  its  stem  with  its  peculiar  system  of 
blanches,  and  its  root  and  root  system.  As  has  been  pointed  out, 
the  f6rmer  is  to  explore  the  air  for  carbonic  acid  and  sunlight, 
and  the  latter  to  explore  the  ground  for  water  and  certain  sub- 
stances dissolved  in  the  water. 

Each  plant  arranges  its  stems  with  its  branches  and  the 
leaves  on  them,  in  such  a  way  as  to  present  its  leaves  to  the  sun- 
light and  air  to  very  good  advantage  and  with  little  interference 
with  each  other.  The  ways  in  which  the  many  forms  of  plants 
have  worked  this  out  are  very  numerous  and  are  represented  in 
the  varied  habits  of  plants  which  we  know  as  characteristic  of 
them.  This  subject  we  shall  take  up  in  later  lessons. 

The  root  systems  of  the  plants  are  as  important  and  as  well 
planned  as  the  stem  systems.  However,  less  is  known  about  them 
since  they  are  hidden  and  hard  to  get  at  Still  the  early  stages  of 
the  formation  of  the  root  system  can  be  observed  in  the  growth  of 
the  seeds  between  the  glass  plates  and  in  the  jar  of  water. 

Growing  plants  of  various  kinds  may  be  carefully  dug  up ' 


28  NATURE  STUDY 

the  roots  washed  off  and  thus  much  be  learned  in  regard  to  the 
root  systems.  If  caving  banks,  washouts,  railroad  cuts  or  other 
excavations  allow  the  observation  of  the  roots  of  larger  plants  at 
greater  or  less  depths  under  ground,  the  teacher  of  course  will 
take  advantage  of  them.  Professor  Hilgard  has  published  in  a 
bulletin  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  California,  the  pho- 
tographs of  excavations  showing  the  extensive  root  system  of  fruit 
trees  as  they  are  disposed  in  California  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  its  peculiar  seasons. 

Two  objects  of  great  importance  can  easily  be  observed  in 
the  growth  of  the  plants  between  the  glass  sheets  and  in  the  water 
jars — they  are  the  root  hairs  and  the  root  tip  with  its  root  cap. 

The  root  hairs  are  the  parts  that  absorb  the  water  and  hence 
their  importance.  The  main  purpose  of  the  root  system  is  to  ex- 
tend the  parts  that  bear  the  root  hairs  into  every  cubic  inch  of 
soil  where  moisture  can  be  obtained  within  reach  of  the  plant. 

The  root  hairs  form  a  fine  down  ol  minute  hairs  as  thin  as 
filaments  of  cotton  which  cover  each  small  rootlet  a  short  distance 
back  of  the  growing  tip  of  the  rootlet.  They  are  so  delicate  that 
they  usually  break  off  when  a  plant  is  pulled  up  by  the  roots. 
They  can  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye,  but,  of  course,  a  lens  shows 
them  better. 

The  root  tip  is  also  a  very  important  organ  of  the  plant  since 
it  is  by  the  root  tips  that  the  roots  are  planned  out  and  each  carried 
to  the  place  where  it  comes  finally  to  lie.  That  is,  the  root  tip  is 
the  growing  end  of  the  root.  It  is  very  sensitive  to  contact,  to 
moisture  and  also  must  be  to  other  influences.  It  is,  in  conse- 
quence, able  to  find  its  way  to  the  parts  of  the  soil  where  it  should 
go  and  in  doing  this  is  able  to  avoid  the  various  obstacles  which 
it  meets.  At  its  very  tip  it  is  covered  with  a  minute  cap  called 
the  root  cap  which  affords  the  extreme  end  some  protection. 

Have  the  pupils  see  thru  the  glass  sheets  how  the  root 
tips  avoid  the  obstructions  and  find  their  way  in  different  direc- 
tions. Root  tips  avoid  light,  while  stem  tips  seek  it.  Root  tips 


SEEDS  29 

usually  grow  downward  and  stem  tips  grow  upwards,  but   both 
may  grow  horizontally. 

Here  are  opportunities  for  some  instructive,  tho  simple, 
experiments  which  will  reveal  more  of  the  life  of  plants,  but  these 
must  be  reserved  ior  future  lessons. 


How  to  Make  a  Collection  of  Insects. 


Though  the  nature  study  class  will  find  most  of  its  interest 
and  most  of  its  work  in  observing  the  habits  of  animals  and 
plants,  there  is  a  certain  interest  and  use  in  collecting  and  pre- 
serving specimens,  in  "making  a  collection."  Among  animals 
none  are  more  readily  collected  and  preserved  than  insects.  They 
are  abundant  both  in  species  and  in  individuals;  they 
are  to  be  found  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  and  under 
all  conditions  of  surroundings.  They  live  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  in  the  soil,  in  water,  on  and  in  all  kinds  of  plants,  in 
decaying  matter,  in  short,  they  have  adapted  themselves  to 
almost  all  of  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  at  all  possible  for 
animals  to  live.  Coupled  with  this  abundance  of  individuals  and 
variety  of  habitat,  they  are  readily  collected  and  easily  preserved. 
No  elaborate  collecting  equipment  is  required,  nor  any  expensive 
and  room  filling  cabinets.  Thus  insects  present  themselves  as 
specially  fit  objects  for  the  beginnings  of  a  nature  study  collection. 

Not  only  are  the  full  grown  flying  insects  themselves  to  be 
collected,  but  also  their  immature  stages;  the  eggs,  the  cat- 
erpillars and  other  larvae,  the  cocoons  and  chrysalides  and  various 
pupal  forms,  and  finally  their  nests  and  the  various  products  of 
their  handiwork,  all  should  be  collected  and  properly  arranged 
and  displayed  for  reference.  In  the  following  directions  for 
making  and  caring  for,  as  simply  as  possible,  an  insect  collection, 
some  account  of  the  collecting  and  preserving  of  all  these  various 
kinds  of  specimens  is  included. 

For  collecting  insects  there  is  necessary  a  collecting  net  and  a 
collecting  or  killing  bottle.  The  net  bag  should  be  about  12  or 
13  inches  in  diameter  at  its  mouth,  about  24  inches  deep,  and 
should  taper  from  its  mouth  to  a  diameter  of  about  6  inches  at 
the  rounding  bottom.  It  should  be  made  of  cheese  cloth  or 
strong  bobinet,  and  should  be  bordered  at  its  mouth  by  sheeting 
which  should  be  firmly  sewn  over  a  wire  net-ring  fastened  to  a 


HOW   TO   MAKE   A   COLLECTION  OF   INSECTS 


light  wooden  or  cane  handle  three  and  a  half  feet  long.     Any 
ingenious  boy  can  make  the  net-handle  and  ring. 

For  the  collecting  and  killing  bottle  (fig.  10)  put  into  the 
bottom  of  a  wide-mouthed  bottle  (a  4-oz  or  6-oz  quinine  bottle)  a 
tablespoonful  of  cyanide  of  potassium  which  has  been  broken 
into  small  pieces  (as  large  as  peas)  and  cover  this  with  a  layer, 

half  an  inch  thick,  of  plaster 
of  Paris  mixed  with  water  to 
form  a  thick  paste.  After  the 
plaster  has  set  (letting  the  bot- 
tle stand  uncorked),  put  into 
the  bottle  a  small  crumpled  bit 
of  tissue  paper  (to  prevent  the 
shaking  about  of  the  insects 
and  to  absorb  moisture)  and 
the  killing  bottle  is  ready  for 
use.  It  should  be  kept  tightly 
corked.  Insects  caught  with 
the  net  or  with  the  hands  have 
simply  to  be  dropped  into  the 
killing  bottle  and  the  deadly 
Fig.  10.  Killing  bottle;  cyanide  of  potassium  hydrocyanic  gas  which  fills  the 
at  bottom,  covered  with  piaster  of  Pari*.  bottle  will  kill  them  almost  im- 
mediately. The  insects  may  be  left  in  the  bottle  until  the  school- 
room is  reached,  when  they  should  betaken  out  and  pinned  up  as 
described  later.  The  cyanide  of  potassium  used  in  the  killing 
bottle  is  a  deadly  poison  and  the  utmost  care  should  be  shown  in 
its  use.  Perhaps  it  will  be  advisable  to  have  a  druggist  make  the 
bottles  according  to  the  above  directions.  Each  bottle  should  be 
marked  "Poison,"  and  the  pupils  warned  not  to  inhale  the  gas 
when  the  cork  is  removed. 

With  collecting  net  and  killing  bottle,  and  a  few  small  boxes 
for  live  specimens,  nests,  etc.,  the  insect  collector  is  outfitted.  In 
collecting,  visit  flowers,  turn  over  stones  and  old  logs,  go  into 


32  NATURE   STUDY 

orchards  where  fruit  is  falling,  explore  the  bark  of  tree  trunks, 
work  along  the  banks  oi  streams  or  ponds.  For  insects  which 
live  in  the  water,  a  special  water  net  will  be  necessary;  one  with 
wider  meshes  so  that  it  may  be  drawn  readily  thru  the  water.  A 
special  kind  of  collecting  is  that  called  "sweeping."  In  a  meadow 
or  pasture,  especially  if  many  flowers  are  in  bloom,  whip  the  net 
quickly  back  and  forth  over  the  tops  of  the  weeds  and  grasses. 
You  will  be  sure  to  catch  a  host  of  small  insects  and  spiders  in 
this  way.  Do  not  collect  the  flying  insects  alone,  but  collect  lar- 
vae, caterpillars,  cocoons,  chrysalides,  nests,  leaves  and  twigs 
bearing  galls  or  showing  the  effects  of  insect  attack,  and  all  other 
specimens  which  illustrate  the  life  of  insects. 

The  preservation  of  the  collected  specimens  is  simple,  and 
easily  learned.  The  insects  are  to  be  pinned  up,  i.  e.,  each 
insect  is  to  be  mounted  by  thrusting  a  special  kind  ol 
slender  pin  (called  an  insect  pin)  thru  the  middle  of  that  part  of 
the  body  called  the  thorax,  the  part  ot  the  body  from  which  the 
wings  arise.  Beetles,  only,  are  not  pinned  thru  the  middle  of  the 
thorax,  but  thru  the  right  wing-cover  close  to  the  median  line  of 
the  body.  These  insect  pins  must  be  bought  of  a  dealer  in  nat- 
uralists' supplies,  and  can  be 
had  in  various  sizes.  The 
sizes  most  commonly  used 
are  numbers  i  and  3  of  the 
kind  of  pins  called  Klaeger 
.pins.  (The  dealer  may  not 
have  the  Klaeger  pins,  but  a 
kind  called  Karlsbader;  num- 
bers 3  and  5  .are  the  size  to 

Fig.  11.     "Pinned-up"  insect  buy    of    this       kind.)        TheSC 

pins  cost  12  or  15  cents  a  hundred.  The  insects  should  be  pushed 
up  on  the  pin  so  that  only  one-third  of  the  pin  projects  above  the 
back  of  the  specimen  (fig.  n). 

Most  insects  need  no  turther  care  than  this  simple  pinning 


HOW   TO  MAKE  A  COLLECTION  OF    INSECTS 


33 


up.  But  some  large-winged  kinds,  as  butterflies,  moths,  dragon- 
flies,  etc.,  should  have  their  wings  spread.  To  accomplish  this, 
there  is  necessary  a  setting-board  (figs.  12  and  13),  consisting  of 
a  block  or  frame  arranged  so  that  a  groove  runs  between  two  flat 
strips  of  board.  Under  the  groove  cork  is  fastened.  The  body  of  the 
pinned  insect  is  placed  in  the  groove,  the  pin  being  thrust  into  the 
cork  below  far  enough  to  bring  the  back  of  the  insect  just  even 
with  the  surface  of  the  strips  of  the  board  at  the  sides.  The  wings 
are  spread  out  and  held  flat  against  the  surface  by  pinned-down 

strips  of  paper.  Insects  should  be 
left  on  the  setting  or  spreading 
boards  for  a  week  or  more,  when 
they  may  be  removed,  the  wings 
having  dried  in  this  outspread 
position. 

Caterpillars,  spiders  and  some 
very  soft  bodied  insects  should 
not  be  pinned  up  but  should  be  put 
into  alcohol  in  vials  for  preserva- 
tion. Cocoons  and  chrysalides  may 
be  mounted  on  pins  or  put  into 
alcohol.  The  pinned  specimens 
must  be  kept  in  "insect,  cases;" 
the  best  insect  cases  for  the  begin- 
ning collection  are  cigar  boxes 
with  the  bottom  covered  inside 
with  sheet  cork  or  with  any  soft 
pith  such  as  the  flowering  stem 
of  the  century  plant  (pita- 
wood)  or  of  the  stalks  of  field 
corn  (corn-pith).  The  pinned 
insects  can  be  arranged  in  these 
cigar  boxes  according  to  kind;  i. 
PI?.  12.  setting- board.  (After  conistock).  e.,  all  the  beetles  together,  all  the 


34 


NATURE   STUDY 


moths  and  butterflies  together,  all  the  bees  and  wasps  together, 
all  the  flies  together,  etc.  If  some  little  expenditure  of  money 
can  be  made  (the  cigar  boxes  cost  practically  nothing),  have  a 
good  carpenter  make  a  number  of  shallow  glass  topped  cases 
according  to  the  following  directions:  Make  a  shallow  box  12  or 
15  inches  (inside)  by  2  inches  deep  (inside)  with  tight  joints,  and 
with  a  cover  i  inch  deep,  which  fit  together  tightly  by  means  of 
groove  and  tongue;  all  joints  should  be  as  close  as  possible. 
(There  are  certain  small  insects,  so-called  museum  pests,  which 
feed  on  dried  specimens,  and  the  tight  covers  and  perfect  joints 
of  the  insect  case  are  necessary  if  these  pests  are  to  be  kept  out.) 
Cover  the  bottom  of  the  case  with  sheet  cork  or  pith,  and  it  is 
ready  for  use.  This  kind  of  a  case  not  only  preserves  the  collec- 
tion from  the  attack  of  museum  pests,  but  allows  the  specimens 
to  be  attractively  displayed. 

All  specimens  should  bear  a  small  label — the  label  should  be 
borne  on  the  pin  under  the  specimen — give  the  locality  and  date 
of  capture.  If  most  of  the  collecting  is  to  be  done  in  a  single 
locality  small  printed  labels  bearing  the  name  of  the  locality  and 
with  a  blank  space  for  writing  in  the  date,  are  convenient. 

Collecting  net,  killing  bottle,  insect  pins,  setting  board, 
insect  cases,  and  vials  of  alcohol,  these  are  the  apparatus  necessary 
for  collecting  and  preserving  insects  for  making  an  insect  col- 
lection. An  expenditure  of  one  dollar  will  suffice  (if  cigar  boxes 
are  used  for  insect  cases),  to  make  a  good  beginning  in  the  making 
of  a  school  room  insect  collection. 


Fig.  13.    Cross-section  ol  setting-board.    (After  Comstocki. 


35 


FUNGI. 

After  the  first  rains  come  and  tbruout  the  season  of  rains  the 
mushrooms  and  many  other  forms  ol   fungi  spring   up  on  every  - 
hand. 

The  great  majority  of  this  company  of  plants  are  quite 
modest  in  their  behavior.  They  are,  toe,  mostly  short-lived, 
coming  in  the  night,  and  passing  away  during  the  next  day,  or 
extending  their  stay  but  a  few  days  at  the  most.  Their  methods 
of  gaining  their  nutrition,  of  reproducing  themselves,  and  ol  dis- 
tributing themselves  over  the  earth  are  hidden  from  the  casual 
observer.  In  short  their  mode  of  life  is  a  puzzle  and  mystery  to 
most  people.  This  has  led  the  whole  group  to  be  much  neglected 
in  the  pursuance  of  the  more  conspicuous  phenomena  of  plant  life 
as  presented  by  the  showy  flowering  plants. 

From  time  out  of  mind,  many  members  of  the  group  have 
been  looked  upon  with  downright  fear  as  being  intimate  with  all 
sorts  of  uncanny  existences,  and  being  in  league  with  them  to 
work  evil  on  mankind.  But  these  quiet  little  plants,  like  all 
other  plants,  both  big  and  small,  are  hard  at  work  at  food  gather- 
ing, reproduction  and  distribution.  Each  one  from  the  micro- 
scopic bacterium  to  the  great  puff  ball  represents  in  their  varied 
forms  and  sizes,  special  adaptations  to  conditions  which  each  has 
found  favorable  to  its  life. 

They  offer  many  a  delightful  lesson  to  him  who  will  hunt  out 
their  homes  in  pasture,  woods  or  canon. 

The  sizes  and  forms  of  fungi  are  as  variable  as  could 
be  imagined.  They  include  the  mushrooms  or  toad-stools,  the 
puft- balls,  the  moulds,  the  blights,  the  mildews,  the  smuts,  the 
rusts,  the  bacteria,  and  many  other  forms  whose  names  are  not 
so  familiar. 


NATURE   STUDY 


Many  are  harmless  to 
man,  many  are  indifferently 
good  or  bad,  many  are  deli- 
cious and  nutritious  food, 
many  are  destructive 
enemies  to  man's  buildings, 
his  clothing,  and  especially 
his  food,  others  attack  the 
plants  he  nurtures  for  their 
fruits  and  grains,  and  some 
are  deadly  enemies  to  his 
own  body,  being  poisonous 
like  some  ot  the  poisonous, 
mushrooms,  or,  as  with 

Fig.  14-The  common  edible  mushroom.  some     forms     of      bacteria, 

being  the  cause  of  the  most  dreaded  diseases.  Their 
abundance  and  importance  as  well  as  their  interesting  mode  of 
life,  are  sufficient  reasons  for  their  introduction  into  a  course  of 
nature  study  lessons,  for  which  a  few  of  the  more  common  and 
conspicious  forms  may  serve  as  an  introduction. 

As  the  terms  mushroom  and  toad-stool  will  come  up  imme- 
diately for  consideration,  it  may  be  said  that  the  usage  shows 
both  terms  applied  indiscrimately  to  the  same  species.  Toad- 
stool is  applied  by  some  to  those  forms  only  which  they  consider 
poisonous,  while  mushroom  is  reserved  for  those  considered 
edible.  But  the  general  usage  among  botanists  is  to  make  the 
term  mushroom  serve  as  the  common  general  name  of  all  the 
forms  to  which  the  names  mushroom,  toad-stool  and  puff-ball  are 
commonly  applied. 

It  may  be  stated  also  that  it  is  not  the  object  of  this  lesson 
to  point  out  any  methods  of  distinguishing  the  edible  from  the 
non-edible  mushrooms.  While  it  is  very  desirable  that  a  bette- 
nnderstanding  ot  the  wholesome  and  nutritious  value  of  many  of 
the  common  forms  be  extended  and  thus  save  great  waste  of  ex- 


FUNGI  37 

cellent  food  that  goes  on  every  year  in  our  fields  and  woods,  the 
teacher  should  not  undertake  the  responsibility  of  giving  this  in- 
formation without  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  good  and  bad 
forms. 

Our  lessons  are  to  be  with  the  life  of  the  plant.  Some  form 
of  the  umbrella  shaped  mushrooms  is  good  for  the  first  lesson. 

The  common  edible  mushroom  is  shown  in  Fig.  14.  If  this 
or  some  similar  form  can  be  obtained  in  sufficient  abundance, 
allow  each  pupil  to  have  a  specimen.  Have  him  examine  all 
its  parts  carefully.  The  stalk  is  called  the  stem;  the  expanded 
portions  is  the  wp;  the  ragged  fringe  running  around  the  stem  a 
short  distance  below  the  cap  is  the  ring;  the  thin  plates  under- 
neath this  cap  radiating  from  the  stem  are  the  gills.  These  in  the 
younger  specimens  of  the  common  edible  form  are  pink,  turning 
brown  and  later  black  with  age.  Have  the  pupils  slice  the  mush- 
room through  cap  and  stem  to  see  the  connection  between  them. 

The  stages  of  growth  from  their  first  appearance  as  small 
white  balls  to  the  adult  form  should  be  observed.  It  will  then  be 
seen  that  a  curtain  covers  the  cap  and  gills,  and  it  is  the  breaking 
of  this  by  growth  of  the  containing  parts  which  makes  the  ring. 

Direct  the  pupils  to  cut  the  stems  of  several  close  to  the  caps, 
and  place  these  caps,  gill  side  down  on  sheets  of  white  paper,  and 
place  them  where  they  will  not  be  in  currents  of  air.  Alter  some 
hours  or  the  next  day  the  paper  will  show  a  beautiful  deposit  of 
very  fine  powder  neatly  outlining  the  shape  of  the  gills.  This 
powder  is  made  of  the  spores  which  have  been  discharged  from 
the  gills  and  the  picture  thus  made  is  sometimes  called  a  spore 
print.  As  the  spores  of  different  species  are  of  different  colors 
they  may  be  taken  on  a  sheet  of  glass  and  this  placed  over  dark 
or  light  colored  paper  to  give  the  proper  background  for  display- 
ing the  spores  to  the  best  advantage. 

This  brings  us  to  make  a  brief  survey  of  the  course  of 
the  life  of  the  plant.  The  spore  is  to  this  plant  what  the  seed  is 
to  higher  plants  being  the  part  from  which  the  plant  starts  to  grow. 


38  NATURE   STUDY. 

C^x       A  The    spore,    however,  is 


&v 

a  "e© 


not  have  the  structure 
of  a  seed.  It  has  no 
seed  coats,  no  cotyle- 
dons, and  no  embryo. 
It  is  very  minute  and 
consists  of  a  single  cell, 
while  a  seed  of  a  flower- 
ing plant  may  have  mil- 
Ions  of  cells  in  it.  A. 
\>2  /-j  single  spore  is  very  small 

and     requires     a    good 

Fig.  15 —Spores  of  fungi,  highly  magnified;  a.  ot 
Fig.  16;  b,  of  Fig.  14;  c,  of  Fig.  18;  d,  of  Fig,  22.  miCrOSCOpe  to  SCC  it  Well. 

The  shape  of  the  spores  of  each  kind  of  mushroom  is  peculiar  to 
it.     Fig.  1 5  shows  four  forms  of  spores. 

The  mushroom  discharges  countless  numbers  of  these  minute 
spores,  which  are  borne  on  the  wind  over  great  areas  of  the  earth. 
The  spore  that  lodges  in  a  place  just  suitable,  as  far  as  moisture, 
heat  and  food  are  concerned,  begins  to  grow  by  sprouting  out  a 
minute  and  delicate  thread.  This  absorbs  food  and  water,  grows 
further  and  then  sends  off  minute  thread-like  branches.  The 
branches  continue  the  same  method  of  growth  and  branching 
until  the  soil,  the  rotting  stump  or  whatever  the  mushrooms 
flourishes  upon  is  penetrated  by  a  great  mass  of  these  fine  threads. 
If  we  could  get  them  out  they  would  look  just  like  the  white  cot- 
tony mass,  which,  in  the  form  of  mould  sometimes  is  seen  upon 
bread  or  on  the  top  of  fruit  in  jars.  It  is  so  delicate  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  extricate  it  from  the  soil  entire,  but  we  can  see  at  the 
bottom  of  the  mushroom  stem,  the  large  white  cords  looking  like 
roots,  which  are  made  up  of  great  numbers  of  these  threads  run- 
ning into  the  stem.  These  white  threads  are  called  the  mycelium 
or  spawn.  When  one  buys  of  the  seedman  spawn  of  mushroom 
for  propagating  them  for  the  table,  what  he  obtains  is  a  block  of 


FUNGI 


39 


rich  earth  which  has  fine  threads  of  mycelium  all  thru  it,  but  of 
course  not  to  be  seen  in  the  mass,  which  will  continue  to  grow  in 
similar  rich  earth.  Fig.  21  represents  the  mycelium  of  a  mould 
that  grows  upon  bread,  and  illustrates  well  the  mycelium  of  the 
mushrooms. 

After  the  mycelium  has  grown  for  sometime  and  accumulated 
a  great  amount  of  nutrition  it  is  ready  to  form  spores.  Then  it 
pushes  up  rapidly  the  toad  stool,  puff  ball,  or  what  ever  other 
spore  bearing  apparatus  it  may  possess.  The  conspicuous  forms 
that  we  see  above  the  ground  or  on  the  rotting  log  are  simply  the 
spore  bearing  part  of  the  plant,  tho  they  grow  sometimes  with 
such  remarkable  rapidity  as  to  make  "mushroom  growth"  an 
often  used  comparison.  We  must  remember  that  the  forming  oJ 
the  conspicuous  spore  bearing  portions  of  the  mushroom  is  but  an 
incident  in  the  life  of  the  plant,  and  that  it  may  have  taken 

months  of  hard  work  tc 
get  ready  for  the  import- 
ant incident. 

Briefly  the  life  of  a 
fungus  consists  of:  The 
sprouting  of  a  minute 
thread  from  a  spore;  the 
growth  of  this  thread 
into  a  tangled  felt  of 
mycelium  which  pene- 
trates the  substance  it 
grows  upon;  then  the 
forming  a  spore  bearing 
apparatus  which  pro- 
duces the  spores  from 
which  the  cycle  begins 
again. 

Fig.  16— A  common  form  of  the  genus  Boletus.    In  The        WOrk       OI       the 

this   the    spores    come   from    tubes,  which  .  t 

are  shown  ou  under  surface  of  the  cap.  nature  StUuy     ClaSS     may 


•40 


NATURE  STUDY. 


begin  by  gathering  the  different  forms  that  may  be  found  and 
determining  where  the  spore  bearing  surface  is  in  each.  As  has 
already  been  seen  in  Fig.  14,  the  spore  bearing  surface  of  the  com- 
mon edible  mushroom  is  on  the  gills  on  the  under  side  of  the  cap. 
There  are  many  forms  like  this  from  which  spore  prints  can  be 
obtained. 

Another  large  group  of  mushrooms  bears  the  spores  on 
the  surface  of  small  tubes  which  are  in  the  part  under  the 
cap,  or  under  the  shelving  masses  growing  on  the  sides  of 
stumps  or  logs.  Fig.  16  is  a  very  common  form  found  in  lawns, 
in  the  woods  under  pine  trees  and  in  other  situations.  It  is 
known  as  Boletus  and  there  are  many  species  of  this  genus.  The 
illustration  shows  the  tubes  on  the  under  surface  of  the  cap. 

Fig.  17  represents  a  spore  print  of  this  Boletus,  taken  by 
cutting  off  the  cap  and  placing  it  bottom  side  down  on  a  sheet  of 
paper  and  allowing  it  to  remain  for  some  hours  when  it  dis- 
charges its  spores  down  the 
tubes  thus  outlining  the  un- 
derside of  the  fungus. 

The  puff-balls  keep  their 
spore  surfaces  inclosed  in 
a  sac,  while  the  spores 
are  forming.  When  they 
are  ripened  the  sac  be- 
comes dry  and  breaks  open 
at  the  top.  Any  slight 
shake  on  it  sends  out  a 
puff  of  smoke.  The  smoke 
is  a  cloud  of  spores. 

Fig.  17— Spore  print  of  the  Boletus  of  Fig.  16.        Some     of   the     puff-balls    in 

California  grow  to  the  enormus  size  ot  a  foot  in  diameter. 
These  when  growing,  while  still  white  are  excellent  food,  many 
thousands  of  pounds  of  which  go  to  waste  every  year. 


PUNGI 


What  a  vast 
number  of  spores 
one  of  these 
sends  out! 

There    is   one 
very    curious 
form  of  puff-bal 
that      always 
Interests       the 
^class  very  much. 
It  is   known  as 
the    Geaster 
(earth  star.)     It 
is    a      puff-ball 
with    a    great 
collar  around  its 
neck.      When  it 
is  dry  the  rays 

Fig.  18— A  very  common  form  ot  small  puff-ball.     The  one  at  the    °*     *nis    C  O  1  1  a  I 
light  hand  is  discharging  its  spores.  GUrj     u        tightly 

over    the    ball.    (Fig.    19.)    When 
moistened   the   rays   of   the  collar 
swell     up     and     turn     out     first, 
then  down  against  the  ground   and 
raise  the  ball  up  as  in  Fig.    20.     A 
dry  Geaster   placed   in   a   dish     of 
water  will  quickly  take  the  form  in 
Fig.  20,  and  may  soon  be  given  the 
form  in   Fig.  19  by  drying.      This 
process     may    be    repeated    many 
times  on  the  same  individual. 
Moulds   lead  the  same  life   as  do  the  mushrooms.     As  the 
whole  •  course  of   their    life   can  easily   be   observed  the    study 
of  a    mould   is  very  interesting  and  makes  the  conception  ol  the 
life  histoty  of  the  large  fungi  clearer. 


Fig  19— A  Geaster  with  its  collar 
turned  up. 


NATURE   STUDY. 


Fig.  20— A  Geaster  with  its  collar  turned  dowii. 


A  good  growth 
of  a  large  kind 
of  a  mould  is 
generally  easily 
obtained  by 
placing  a  piece 
of  bread  slightly 
moistened  in  a 
closed  fruit  jar, 
kept  closed  that 
the  air  around 
the  bread  may 
remain  moist 
In  some  man- 
ner the  spores  of 
this  mould  are 


scattered  everywhere  so  that  the  cleanest  bread  has  some.    In  two 


fig.  21— The  mould  Mucor  grown  ou  bread.    The  network  is  the  mycelium;  the  knobs 
are  the  spore  bearing  parts.    Magnified. 


FUNGI 


43 


or  three  days  the  bread  will  become  covered  with  a  cotton-like  felt 
of  threads.  This  is  the  mycelium.  Later  there  rise  up  from  this  mass 
many  minute  stalks  which  develop  at  their  summits  little  black 
beads  The  black  beads  are  the  spore  bearing  surface  and  each 
furnishes  an  inimense  number  of  spores.  Those  who  understand 
the  use  of  the  microscope  will  know  how  to  inclose  some  of  these 
spores  in  a  glass  "moist  cell"  and  watch  their  growth  and  thus 

demonstrate  the  whole  course  of  the  life 
of  a  fungus.  The  spores  may  be  sown 
on  other  pieces  of  bread  and  a  new 
crop  raised.  The  name  of  this  par- 
ticular kind  of  mould  is  Mucor. 

There    are   many   other    kinds     of 
moulds  which  the  pupils  may  find  and 
bring    for    comparison.       There     are 
several  species  which  will  follow   the 
c  Mucor  on  the  same  piece  of  bread   on 
>J  which  it  grew.    Some  of  these  may  be 
of  bright  colors. 

The  blights,  mildews,  smuts  and 
rusts  possess  more  or  less  the  habits 
of  life  of  the  moulds.  Many  of  them 
live  on  living  plants. 

As  none  of  the  fungi  have  chloro- 
phyll (the  green  coloring  matter  in. 
the  leaves  of  higher  plants.  See  les- 
sons on  leaves)  they  cannot  feed  upon 
They,  every  one,  feed  upon  organic 
substances.  Either  decaying  plants  or  animals  or  living  plants 
or  animals  furnish  them  their  food.  Indeed  it  is  they  that  pro- 
duce the  processes  we  include  under  the  term  decaying. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  that  as  they  must  find  their   food  in 
the  substances  of  plants  and  animals  either  living  or  dead,  they 


ing  spores.     Magnified. 

carbonic  acid  and  water. 


44  NATURE  STUDY 

become  in  some  cases  scavengers  clearing  away  dead  timber  or 
dead  animals,  or  may  attack  all  substances  made  of  wood  or  other 
plant  products  or  of  animal  products,  that  means  our  food  and 
clothing,  or  may  attack  living  plants  or  animals.  The  preserva- 
tion of  food,  clothing,  the  protection  of  garden  and  orchard  plants 
from  certain  diseases  and  the  treatment  of  many  of  the  diseases  of 
the  human  body  are  problems  of  dealing  with  forms  of  fungi, 
mostly  of  the  minute  forms. 

The  collection  ot  a  few  of  the  common  forms  of  mushrooms 
will  easily  recommend  them  to  the  teacher  as  excellent  objects  for 
drawing.  Their  graceful  forms  and  beautiful  colors  have  been 
most  attractively  portrayed  by  Gibson  in  his  "Toad-stools  and 
Mushrooms." 


45 


Rearing  Insects  in  the  School-room. 

For  the  study  of  the  habits  and  life-history  of  the  mosquito, 
as  described  in  one  of  the  first  of  these  nature  study  lessons, 
it  was  fouad  to  be  necessary  to  keep  the  young  mosqui- 
toes alive  under  conditions  approximating  the  natural  condi- 
tions of  mosquito  life.  Many  other  insects  lend  themselves  to 
similar  more  or  less  nearly  complete  observation  of  their  habits  and 
transformations  under  those  favorable  conditions  for  seeing 
obtained  when  the  insects  live  and  grow  and  transform  in  the 
school-room.  A  building  or  room  in  which  insects  are  reared  and 
kept  alive  under  conditions  approximating  natural  out-of-doors 
conditions  is  called  an  insectary,  and  may  be  an  extensive  and 
costly  affair  ;  but  any  school-room  can  with  little  trouble  and  less 
expense  be  made  to  serve  as  a  modest  insectary,  sufficient  for  the 
needs  of  the  nature  study  class. 

The  necessary  equipment  comprises  a  few  flower-pots,  a  few 
glass  lamp  chimneys,  or  better,  lantern  chimneys,  a  few  small 
boxes,  and  a  few  glass  fruit  jars. 

The  insects  to  be  reared  are  those  whose  habits  and  life-his- 
tory may  happen  to  be  specially  described  in  the  course  of  these 
nature  study  lessons,  and  in  addition  any  others  which  can  be 
readily  obtained,  kept  successfully  in  confinement,  and  whose 
food  can  be  easily  supplied.  Many  insects  can  be  kept  in  the 
school-room  for  part  of  their  life;  and  certain  particular  phases  of 
their  life-history  observed.  Thus  the  cocoons  or  chrysalides  of 
moths  and  butterflies  may  be  collected  and  brought  into  the 
school-room  and  kept  until  the  issuance  of  the  imago  (adult 
insect).  Or  caterpillars,  whose  food  plant  is  known  and  is  readily 
obtainable,  may  be  reared,  and  their  moultings,  their  transforma- 
tions into  pupae,  and  finally  the  issuing  of  the  moths  or  butter- 
flies from  the  pupae,  all  may  be  observed. 


46 


NATURE  STUDY 


'' Breeding  cages"  can  be  made  in 
various  ways.  One  of  the  most  gen- 
erally  useful  consists  of  a  flower-pot 
in  which  the  food  plant  of  the  insect  to 
be  bred  is  growing.  The  plant  should 
be  inclosed  by  a  lantern  globe  or  wide 
lamp  chimney  whose  top  is  covered 
over  with  mosquito  netting  (fig.  23). 
If  the  food  plant  cannot  be  grown  in 
the  pot  (if  for  example  it  is  some  shrub 
or  tree)  the  flower- pot  may  be  filled  with 
wet  sand,  or  better,  a  wide-mouthed 
bottle  filled  with  the  wet  sand  and  sunk 
into  the  soil  in  the  flower-pot,  and  leaf- 
covered  branches  be  stuck  into  the  sand. 
Fig.  23.  Lamp  chimney  and  Tbe  food  should  be  renewed  as  often  as 

flower-pot  breeding  cage.  necessary . 

Professor  Comstock  recommends  a  cage  made  by  fitting  a 
pane  of  glass  into  one  side  of  an  empty  soap-box.  A  board, 
three  or  four  inches  wide,  should  -be  fastened  below  the  glass  so 
that  a  layer  of  soil  may  be  placed  in  the  lower  part  of  the  cage, 
and  the  glass  shonld  be  fitted  so  that  it  may  slide  and  thus  serve 
as  a  door  (fig.  24). 

Many  caterpillars  when  ready  to  pupate  burrow  into  the 
soil,  and  transform  underground.  For  this  reason  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  a  layer  of  soil  in  the  flower- pot  cage  or  the  boxcage  if 
such  caterpillars  or  other  larvae  of  similar  habit  are  being  bred. 
After  the  caterpillars  have  gone  into  the  soil  to  pupate,  they  may 
be  dug  for  and  the  pupae  found  and  examined.  The  pupse  should  be 
buried  again,  and  the  issuance  of  the  moth  or  butterfly  (or  other 
insect)  be  awaited. 

Cocoons  may  be  kept  suspended  by  strings  in  wooden  boxes. 
The  interior  of  the  box  should  contain  a  little  soil  which  should 


REARING    INSECTS    IN    THE    SCHOOL-ROOM. 


47 


Fig.  24.     auap-box  breediiig  cage. 


be  occasionally  wet  so  that  the  cocoons  may  be  kept  in  a  not  too 
dry  atmosphere.  Pupae  which  are  found  underground  must  be 
kept  buried  in  soil  or  moss.  This  soil  should  not  be  allowed  to 
become  too  diy,  nor  yet  should  it  be  kept  too  moist. 

Insects  which  feed  on 
dried  or  decaying  organic  mat- 
ter may  be  put, together  with  a 
supply  of  their  food,  into  a 
glass  fruit  jar,  over  the  top  of 
which  mosquito  netting  is  tied. 
From  some  of  the  cocoons 
or  chrysalides  will  issue,  not 
moths  or  butterflies,  but 
smaller  wasp-like  or  fly-like 
insects.  These  are,  if  four- 
winged,  ichneumon-flies,  or 
if  two-winged,  true  flies, which 

are  parasites  of  the  moth  or  butterfly  species  whose  pupa 
you  have.  The  adult  ichneumon  fly  or  other  parasitic  fly 
lays  it  eggs  on  the  skin  of  the  caterpillar;  the  young  paras  tes 
soon  hatch  and  burrow  into  the  body  of  the  unfortunate  cater- 
pillar and  live  in  the  body  feeding  on  the  body  tissues.  The 
caterpillar  usually  has  strength  left  to  transform  into  the  pupa, 
but  the  continued  attacks  of  the  internal  parasites  kill  the  pupa, 
and  from  it  issue  finally  the  full-grown  ichneumon  flies. 

Directions  for  the  special  care  a  ad  treatment  necessary  for 
rearing  those  insects  whose  life-history  is  described  in  this  series 
of  nature  study  lessons  are  given  in  the  case  of  each  insect 
studied.  Thus,  with  these  few  general  directions  for  rear- 
ing insects,  our  consideration  of  the  school-room  insectary  might 
be  closed,  if  it  were  not  that  we  have  omitted  all  reference  to  the 
caring  for  those  insects  which  live  in  water.  For  the  rearing  and 
observation  of  these  water  insects  acmaria  are  necessary.  The 


48  NATURE  STUDY 

making  and  care  of  aquaria  for  the  school-room  is  discussed 
in  the  lesson,  "School-room  Aquaria,"  but  the  following  brief 
notes  are  inserted  here  because  of  their  special  bearing  on  the 
rearing  of  aquatic  insects. 

To  construct  and  maintain  an  aquarium  has  the  sounding  of 
something  difficult  and  large  to  undertake:  to  put  a  layer  of  sand, 
some  water,  and  a  few  water  plants  and  animals  into  a  fruit  jar 
and  let  it,  the  aquarium,  take  care  of  itself,  is  no  such  prodigious 
undertaking.  The  fruit  jar  aquarium  may  be  made  an  object  of 
lively  interest  and  a  great  help  in  nature  study  work. 

Miss  Mary  Farrand  Rogers,  who  has  written  an  interesting 
and  informing  account(*)  of  life  in  an  aquarium,  for  the  series  of 
teachers'  leaflets  prepared  by  the  nature  study  bureau  of  Cornell 
University,  tells  so  well  what  a  schoolroom  aquarium  should  be 
and  how  to  contrive  to  have  it  what  it  should  be,  that  my  first 
suggestion  to  you  in  regard  to  schoolroom  aquaria  is  to  get,  if  you 
can,  a  copy  of  this  leaflet. 

Aquaria  are  of  two  kinds,  (i)  running  Water  aquaria,  and 
(a)  quiet  or  stagnant  water  aquaria.  The  quiet  water  aquaria  are 
so  much  the  simpler  to  care  for  and  more  likely  to  be  possible  in 
the  ordinary  schoolroom  that  we  may  put  aside  any  thought 
of  attempting  the  other  sort.  If,  however,  there  is  a  tap  of  spring 
or  brook  water  in  the  schoolroom  a  running  water  aquarium  can  be 
maintained.  The  water  can  be  allowed  to  flow  constantly  from 
the  tap  into  the  aquarium  and  out  of  it  by  means  of  a  '  'constant 
level  siphon"  (devised  by  Professor  Comstock),  which  differs  from 
an  ordinary  siphon  in  being  bent  up  at  the  outer  end.  The  end 
of  the  siphon  within  the  aquarium  should  be  covered  with  wire 
gauze  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  insects  or  other  aquatic  animals. 

The  quiet  water  aquaria  may  be  permanent  or  temporary. 
The  temporary  ones  may  be  simply  nothing  more  than  a  glass 

*LiFE  IN  AN  AQUARIUM,  by  Msry  Farrand  Rogers,  being  No.  11  (April,  1898)  of 
Teachers'  Leaflets  on  Nature  Study,  prepared  by  the  college  of  Agriculture,  Cornell  Uni« 
veraity.  Ithaca,  N.Y. 


REARING   INSECTS   IN   THE   SCHOOL-ROOM 


49 


tumbler  or  fruit  jar,  into  which  a  few  water  in'sects,  snails  or  min- 
nows have  been  put,  for  present  observation.  For  the  permanent 
aquaria  something  more  is  necessary.  If  a  large  rectangular 
aquarium  case,  of  glass  and  wood,  or  glass  and  metal,  cannot  be 
bought  or  made,  then  get  two  or  three  large  "battery -jars," 
cylindrical  jars  of  large  diameter  and  no  neck,  or  specimen  jars. 
Each  of  these  jars  may  be  transformed  into  an  aquarium.  (See 
fig-  25). 

Put  first  a  layer  of 
sand  two  inches  deep 
into  the  aquarium  (the 
large  rectangular  one  or 
the  smaller  cylindrical 
one)  at  the  bottom;  put 
over  this  a  thinner  layer 
of  small  pebbles  with  one 
or  two  larger  ones;  then 
plant  in  the  sand  a  few 
water  plants  (necessary 
to  keep  up  a  supply  of 
oxygen  in  the  water). 
Now  put  in  the  water 
and  finally  the  water  ani- 
mals especially  desired 
to  study,  with  a  few 
others  for  the  sake  of  va- 
riety or  to  serve  as  food. 

Elsewhere  in  this  series  of  nature  study  lessons  I  shall  give 
an  account  of  some  water  insects  which  may  be  kept  in  the  school- 
room aquaria,  so  that  here  only  the  special  care  of  the  aquarium 
as  a  whole  will  be  discussed.  The  following  points  should  be  at- 
tended to: 

There  must  always  be  growing  plants  in  the  permanent  stag- 
nant water  aquarium. 


Fig.  25.    Bat  tery  Jar  Aquarium 


5O  NATURE   STUDY 

The  aquarium  must  not  be  tightly  covered  over;  fresh  air 
must  have  access  to  it. 

Do  not  keep  the  aquarium  in  the  direct  sunlight;  it  should 
for  the  most  part  of  the  time  be  in  a  shady  spot. 

The  temperature  should  be  kept,  if  possible,  between  40  and 
-60  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Occasional  variations,  if  not  too  extreme, 
will  not  be  dangerous. 

Do  not  put  in  too  many  live  things;  if  the  aquarium  is  over- 
stocked the  death  rate  will  be  high. 

Keep  specially  voracious  carnivorous  insects  in  an  aquarium 
by  themselves  with,  of  course,  a  supply  of  food.  Do  not  keep 
them  in  the  general  aquarium. 

Occasionally  add  a  little  rain  water  or  clear  brook  water  to 
the  aquarium  to  make  up  for  the  loss  by  evaporation. 

If  you  are  keeping  the  immature  stages  of  insects  which, 
when  adult,  do  not  live  in  the  water,  as  dragon-flies,  May-flies, 
etc.,  cover  the  aquarium  with  netting  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the 
adults  and  put  in  a  stick  or  two  projecting  above  the  water  so 
that  the  insects  may  have  something  on  which  to  rest. 

With  attention  to  these  general  directions  for  looking  after 
the  aquarium,  and  by  reference  to  the  special  directions  for  col- 
lecting, caring  for,  and  observing  the  various  water  insects  dis- 
cussed in  the  chapters  on  the  "Mosquito,"  ''How  Insects 
Breathe,"  "Some  Water  Insects, "etc., the  nature  study  class  may, 
it  is  hoped,  find  the  caring  for  an  aquarium  a  matter  not  too  diffi- 
cult, and  in  the  observation  of  the  life  of  the  aquarium  a  source 
of  much  interest. 


The  Bee  and  the  Lupine, 

The   myriads  of  flowers  that  brighten  the  fields  and  hills 
with  their  masses  of  color,  or  give  a  charm  to  every  nook  and 


Fig.  26.  THE  CALIFORNIA.  POPPY  (Eschscholtzfa).  (a)  A  sprig:  of  the 
plant  bearing  on  the  right  an  unopened  bud  with  the  calyx  cap  still  ou 
it ;  on  the  left  the  corolla  opening ;  the  calyx  has  dropped  away,  (b) 
the  calyx  cap  dropping  from  the  bud,  (c)  a  section  through  the  center 
of  the  flower  showing  the  pistil  iu  the  center,  surrounded  by  stamens, 
these  by  the  petals  of  corolla:  (1)  ovary,  (2)  style,  (3)  a  stigma,  (4)  an 
anther  of  stamen  ;  this  bears  pollen. 


52  NATURE   STUDY 

corner  of  the  forest  demand  a  place  in  the  school-room.  Their 
beauty  and  grace  often  are  recognized,  but  in  addition  to  their 
simple  charms  of  form  and  color  their  deeper  meaning  as  the 
active  factors  essential  in  an  important  part  of  the  life  of  the  plant 
make  them  most  profitable  material  for  lessons  in  careful  obser- 
vation and  clear  thinking.  They  show  more  clearly  and  in  a 
more  interesting  way  than  do  most  other  parts  of  the  plant 
how  it  adapts  itself  to  the  conditions  in  which  it  exists.  It  is  in 
the  flower  that  the  ingenuity  of  the  plant  rises  to  the  highest 
pitch.  Its  contrivances  in  the  forms  of  baits  and  traps  are  so 
plain  and  need  so  little  of  difficult  learning  to  understand  them' 
that  they  appeal  immediately  to  the  youngest  and  oldest  member 
of  the  school.  As  in  the  lesson  with  seeds,  their  distribution1 
and  germination,  so  here  seeing  the  plant  do  somethingi 
to  its  own  advantage  adds  greatly  to  the  clearer  insight  of  the 
greatest  fact  in  the  knowledge  of  living  organisms,  that  ofi 
adaptation,  that  is  the  fitting  of  the  organism  to  the  world  ot; 
nature  around  it  to  its  best  advantage. 

A  knowledge  of  certain  facts  must  precede  these  lessons,  but 
as  this  knowledge  is  of  immediate  use,  it  is  easily  imparted  and, 
received. 

First,  it  is  to  be  known  that  the  work  of  the  flower  is  to  pro-1 
duce  the  seeds.  Next  it  is  convenient  to  know  the  parts  of  the 
flower.  Any  common  flower  will  answer  to  teach  this  lesson,  but] 
in  the  first  lesson  a  good-sized  one  such  as  the  poppy  has  advan- 
tages over  small  ones.  In  the  lessons  on  seeds  it  was  seen  where; 
the  ripened  seeds  were  found.  It  is  a  good  point  to  begin  with] 
in  learning  the  parts  of  the  flower  to  determine  where  in  thei 
flower  the  minute  beginnings  of  the  seeds  are  placed. 

These  are  easily  seen  in  the  poppy.  This  part  of  the  flower 
is  the  pistil.  The  part  of  the  pistil  containing  young  seeds  or 
those  things  that  are  to  be  seeds  is  the  ovary.  This  ends  above  in  a 
short  stem  supporting  four  threads, each  bearing  a  surface  called  a 


THE   BEE   AND   THE 


53 


stigma.  Many  flowers  have  but  one  stigma  of  the  form  of  a 
knob.  The  short  stem  between  the  ovary  and  the  stigmas  is  the 
style.  Standing  around  this  pistil  are  a  number  of  little  bodies 
bearing  orange-colored  dust.  The  dust  is  the  pollen  and  the 
bodies  with  their  stems  are  the  stamens. 

Now  the  great  fact  about  the 
flower  is  that  the  seeds  will 
never  form  into  good  seeds  un- 
less pollen  gets  on  the  stigmas 
and  its  grains  grow  down  thru 
the  style  and  find  and  touch  a 
part  of  the  minute  beginnings 
of  seeds  in  the  ovary.  This  is 
called  fertilization.  Pollen  must 
get  to  the  stigma. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  stam- 
ens and  pistils  are  all  important 
parts  of  the  flower.  The  other 
parts  of  the  flower  are  the  corolla 
and  calyx.  The  corolla  in  the 
poppy  is  the  orange-colored  showy  part  which  surrounds  the 
stamens  and  pistil.  Its  separate  pieces  are  called  petals.  The 
catyx  is  the  green  cap  which  comes  off  as  the  flower  bud  opens. 
The  uses  of  these  parts  are  to  be  learned  later.  All  these  parts 
are  of  different  forms  in  the  different  kinds  of  flowers.  In  many, 
the  reason  of  the  particular  form  can  be  discovered  and  thus  be 
a  constant  source  of  nature  study  lessons,  as  will  be  shown  as  we 
proceed. 

Another  fact  of  great  importance  is  that  in  most  flowers  the 
pollen  can  not  get  to  the  stigma  of  the  flower  in  which  it  grows. 
Either  it  does  not  ripen  at  the  same  time  with  the  stigma,  or  there 
is  some  contrivance  to  keep  the  pollen  away  from  the  stigma  of 
its  own  flower.  Pollen  from  one  flower  reaches  the  sti  bxjma  of 


Fig.  27.  A  single  flower  of  the  com- 
mon blue-and  white  lupine,  (Lupinus 
bicolor).  The  upper  part  is  the  signal, 
the  lower  part  is  the  boat-shaped  plat- 
form which  encloses  the  part  shown  in 
fig.  28. 


54  NATURE   STUDY 

another.     This  is  cross  fertilization.     How  is   it   accomplished  ? 
That  is,  how  is  the  pollen  carried  from  one  flower  to  another  ? 

In  this  the  lupine  may  teach 
a  lesson.  There  are  a  great 
number  of  species  of  lupines  in 
California.  Any  one  of  the 
common  forms  will  answer. 
Where  possible  take  the  class 
into  a  field  where  many  K^-f?'  Th«  fl^er  sl?own  iu  Fig.  27  with 

J     both  the  parts  shown  in  it  removed.    The 

lupines     are     in      bloom.          I^et    part  shown  here  incloses  the  stamens  and  pis- 

til.    When  the  bee  alights  on  the  platform  of 

each    one    watch   a  group    of  ™  th£  P?in*  »  is  P"s«ed  through  it  against 

o         r  the  bee's  body  and  a    stream    of  pollen  is 

lupines  for  visits  of  bees  to  the  Pushed  out  of  the  point  a. 
plants   he  has  under  observa- 
tion, and   let   him  try    to    find   out     exactly    what    both    bee 
and  flower  do  during  the  visit.     The  bees  are  in  a  hurry  and  what 
they  do  is  done  so  quickly,  and  what  motions  the   plants  make 
are  over  in  such  a  flash,  that  it  is  hard  to  make  out  at  first  what 
has  happened.     But  careful  work  will  solve  it. 

This  is  what  can  be  seen:  The  bee  hovers  over  the  flower  for  an 
instant,  then  alights  on  the  little  platform  she  finds  there.  Next 
she  thrusts  her  head  down  into  a  part  of  the  plant  after  nectar. 
She  does  not  get  any,  as  lupines  do  not  furnish  it.  In  this  she  is 
deceived  by  its  being  like  so  many  honey  plants.  While  she  thrusts 
her  head  down  into  the  flower,  the  part  of  the  flower  she  is  clinging 
to  is  pressed  down,  and  out  of  a  point  in  the  very  front  of  it 
a  little  stream  of  pollen  oozes  out  on  her  body.  As  she  gets  no 
honey  she  will  usually  take  to  gathering  pollen. 

As  the  bee  has  probably  visited  many  other  flowers,  her  body 
has  already  on  it  pollen  from  them.  As  she  presses  down  the  part 
of  the  flower,  not  only  the  stream  of  pollen  comes  out  of  the  small 
hole,  but  the  stigma  of  the  pistil  is  also  pushed  up  from  this  hole 
against  her  body,  and  thus  may  get  covered  with  the  pollen  from 
flowers  of  other  lupines. 


THE   BEE   AND   THE   LUPINE  55 

To  understand  this  better  and  appreciate  the  contrivances 
used,  have  the  class  now  examine  the  flowers  closely.  If  it  is  the 
common  blue-and-white  lupine  that  is  in  hand,  the  parts  of  the 
corolla  which  show  without  opening  the  flower  are  as  follows  :  The 
upper  blue  and  white  part,  which  is  the  signal  flag  to  show  the  bee 
where  the  flower  is.  Below  this  is  a  boat-shaped  part  which  is 
blue.  If  we  gently  press  this  down  without  touching  what  is 
within  we  find  a  whitish  part  tipped  with  a  dark  purple  point. 
Now  if  this  be  pressed  down  an  orange  mass  of  pollen  comes  out 
of  the  tip,  then  the  stigma  protrudes.  If  we  take  this  covering 
entirely  off  we  find  that  in  it  are  included  the  ten  stamens  and  the 

one  stigma.  A  closer  study  of 
this  covering  shows  it  to  be  in 
two  parts  lightly  adhering  at  a 
part  of  their  edges  in  such  a  way 
as  to  make  a  cone  with  a  minute 
hole  in  the  apex  covering  over 
stigma  and  anthers  of  the 

Fig    29.     One  side    of  the   covering    as    ctarnenS 
shown    in    Fig.  28.  removed,  showing  the 

st7fnn,gnesmheave rfn?£d  .'^dShSJd  thS?       An  examination  of  the  growth 


stamens  have  ripened  and  discharged  their 

pollen,  five  other  stamens  behind  these  are    nf    fU~     flnwer    in    trip  hurl  <;rinw<s 

growing  and  crowding  the  pollen  in  the    C       tnG     nower  1OWS 

that  when  the   conical  covering, 
which,  by  the    way,  is  formed 

of  two  petals,  forms,  five  of  the  stamens  mature  in  the  bud  and 
the  pollen  comes  off,  making  a  mass  of  it.  Then  the  other  five 
stamens  grow  and  crowd  the  mass  of  pollen  forward  into  the  cone. 
In  the  meantime  the  stamens  and  pistil  grow  into  the  curve 
they  present.  Two  other  petals  grow  around  these  in  the  boat- 
shaped  form  and  conceal  them  and  make  the  platform  for  the  bee  to 
light  upon,  and  the  other  petal  grows  up  to  be  the  flag  signal  to 
attract  the  attention  of  the  bee.  Now  the  trap  is  complete.  In 
many  other  flowers  of  much  the  same  form  the  trap  is  baited  with 


NATURE  STUDY 


nectar.  But  for  some 
reason  the  lupine  neg- 
lects this,  but  the  bees 
visit  it,  try  for  nectar  and 
take  the  pollen. 

If  the  lupine  is  not  at 
hand  or  convenient, 
there  are  many  other 
forms  of  flowers  much 
like  it  which  are  similar 
traps,  altho  they  may 
differ  in  some  points, 
such  as  having  nectar, 
or  in  protruding  the 
stamens  with  the  pollen 
instead  of  pushing  the 
pollen  out  of  a  cone  and 
in  other  ways.  Such 
flowers  are  those  of  the 
locust  tree,  peas,  beans, 
clovers  of  the  various 

,  .     ,  .  ,  .         funnel-shaped  corolla  ending  in  a  long  tube,  at  the  bot- 

kindS,    plants  belonging  torn  of  which  is  the  nectar,  (b)  head  of  a  sphinx  moth, 
.        -11  \vhichsometimesvisitsthePetunia.   Its  tongue  is  partly 

to  the   family  known    as  uncoiled.    This  it  straightens  out  and  inserts  into  the 
T  .  long  tube  of  the  flower. 

the   JL/eguminosce,  a  very 

numerous  family.  One  rather  common  member  is  excellent  for 
observation.  This  is  the  "broom"  and  is  cultivated  for  its  showy 
orange  yellow  bloom. 

The  detail  given  above  in  the  study  of  a. lupine  seems,  on  read" 
ing  it,  to  be  too  difficult  for  younger  classes.  But  it  will  not  be 
found  so  in  the  actual  work.  Of  course  it  will  take  some  care 
and  time,  but  it  will  be  done  with  enthusiasm,  and  when  it  is  thus 
well  done  it  gives  the  class  a  clearer  insight  into  this  bit  of  nature 
and  a  drill  in  finding  out  her  ways  that  are  vastly  more  valuable 


(a)  A  flower  of  the  Petunia,  showing  its 


Fie. 


THE   BEE   AND    THE   LUPINE  57 

than  simply  seeing  bees  visit  flowers  and  go  away  with  pollen. 
The  pupil  has  seen  the  real  secret  of  the  showy  flowers.  They 
furnish  food  for  insects,  nectar  and  pollen,  to  entice  them  to  visit 
them ;  they  furnish  colored  signals  in  the  corolla  to  enable  the 
insect  to  find  them  by  sight,  and  perfumes  to  help  them  by  smell, 
and  then  arrange  some  kind  of  a  trap,  sometimes  elaborate,  some- 
times very  simple,  which  requires  the  insect  to  pass  over  the  pol- 
len and  stigma,  so  that  the  pollen  of  one  plant  is  brought  to  the 
stigma  of  the  other  by  the  insect's  body. 

With  this  lesson  well  seen  there  are  numberless  others  possible 
that  can  follow  in  the  same  lines.  Every  form  of  flower  may  be 
subjected  to  inquiry  as  to  how  it  makes  use  of  insects,  and 
what  insects  it  makes  use  of.  For  example,  flowers  like  the 
petunia,  with  the  corolla  formed  into  a  funnel  with  a  long  narrow 
tube  with  the  nectar  at  the  bottom,  can  not  depend  on  bees,  as 
they  can  not  reach  the  nectar.  Let  the  class  find  by  their  own 
work  what  insects  it  does  depend  upon.  The  sphinx  moth  often 
visits  it  This  moth  has  a  long  tongue,  which  it  usually  keeps 
coiled  up  under  its  head.  This  it  uncoils  and  thrusts  down  into 
the  tubes  of  the  corolla. 

This  will  lead  to  the  study  of  the  structure  and  ways  of  many 
insects,  for  they  are  adapted  to  the  flower  as  is  the  flower  to  them. 
For  example,  not  only  the  lupine  and  its  contrivances  may  be 
made  the  subject  of  study,  but  the  bee  and  its  contrivances. 
When  she  gathers  pollen  from  the  plant,  let  the  pupil  determine 
how  she  disposes  of  it.  The  bee  can  be  seen  to  scrape  the  pollen 
off  and  pack  it  into  a  Jump  on  the  part  of  her  hindermost  leg 
called  the  '  'basket. ' '  If  one  of  the  hind  legs  of  a  bee  is  exam- 
ined it  will  be  found  that  the  division  of  the  leg  on  which  she  car- 
ries the  pollen  is  covered  with  a  number  ot  hairs,  which  holds 
the  pollen  she  packs  there.  The  next  division  of  the  leg  below 
the  pollen  basket  is  covered  with  rows  of  stiff  hairs  and  is  used 
as  a  brush  to  sweep  off  the  pollen.  Other  kinds  of  bees  have  hair 
brushes  on  the  abdomen  which  they  use  for  carrying  pollen. 


NATURE   STUDY 


While  colored  and  perfumed  flowers  look  to  insects  and  some 
birds  for  fertilization,  that  is,  to  animals  which  see  and  smell,  there 
are  many  plants  which  depend  upon  another  agent  altogether,  the 
wind.  Such  are  the  grasses,  wheat,  corn,  rye,  oats  and  the  many 
forms  of  wild  grasses.  The  inconspicuous  odorless  flowers  of 
these  may  be  examined,  and  it  may  be  seen  how  their  pollen  is 
adapted  to  be  borne  on  the  wind,  and  how,  to  provide  against  the 
small  chance  of  a  single  grain  of  pollen  meeting  the  stigma, 
immense  quantities  of  pollen  are  sometimes  formed. 

Besides  these  plants  there  are  the  pines,  spruces,  cypress  and 
the  like,  the  Conifers,  usually  not  regarded  as 
having  flowers,  which  produce  immense  quanti- 
ties of  pollen  in  the  small  pollen  bearing  flowers, 
as  they  should  be  called.  Some  of  the  pollen  finds 
its  way  to  the  young  cones  and  fertilizes  the  parts 
which  are  to  become  the  seeds.  They  use  the 
wind  to  carry  the  pollen. 

The  fertilization   of  plants  by  insects  has  an 
interest  from  its  relation   to  the  farmer.     All   the 
fruit  trees  depend  largely  on  the  insects,  principally 
bees,    for  the  fertilization  of  the  flowers.     While 
the    peach,  prune,   apple,     apricot    and    cherry 
may  have   some   of    their     flowers  manage     to 
become  fertilized  without  the  aid  of  insects,  still, 
careful  experimenting    has  shown  that    only  a 
small  percent,  of  the  fruit  will  "set"  unless  in- 
sects  have  free  access  to  them.     Many  who  have  ofethen 
not  understood  the  habits  of  bees  have  accused 
them  of  doing  harm   to  both  the  blossom  and 
the  fruit.  There  is  no  flower  that  the  honey  bee 
harms.     On  the  contrary,  as  has  been  seen,  she 
is  essential  to  many  of  them.     Extensive  experi-  brush- 
menting    has  shown  that  the  honey  bee  never  bites  into   fruit 


THE   BEE   AND   THE   LUPINE  59 

of  any  kind.  When  a  wasp  or  other  insect  has  broken  the  skin 
of  a  fruit  the  bee  may  suck  the  juices  from  the  wound.  Worse 
than  this  she  never  does.  When  fruit  is  cut  and  put  upon  the 
trays  the  bees  annoy  by  visiting  it  and  sucking  up  the  juices 
while  it  is  still  moist.  But  they  do  not  bite  into  it  and  they  cease 
their  visits  when  it  is  too  dry  to  furnish  juices.  The  bee  being 
such  an  important  instrument  in  forming  the  fruit  ought  to  have 
some  consideration  in  its  final  disposal.  Many  orchardists  recog- 
nize the  importance  of  bees  in  their  success  and  provide  bees  to 
fertilize  the  flowers  of  their  trees  so  that  an  abundance  of  fruit  may 
set.  All  of  the  melon  family — watermelons,  muskmelons,  squashes, 
cucumbers  and  pumpkins — depend  wholly  on  insects  for  ferti- 
lization, since  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  borne  in  separate  flowers. 
Those  who,  in  the  eastern  States,  raise  cucumbers  for  the 
market  very  early  in  the  Spring  in  greenhouses,  have  had 
to  put  bees  into  the  greenhouses,  or  make  the  rounds  of  the  flowers 
themselves  and  dust  the  stigmas  with  pollen.  Where  melons  have 
been  raised  on  a  large  scale  in  a  country  where  bees  are  not  common, 
the  melon  producers  keep  large  numbers  of  colonies  of  bees.  Buck- 
wheat depends  upon  bees.  All  have  heard  that,  when  red 
clover  was  introduced  into  Australia,  it  was  found  necessary  to 
introduce  bumble-bees  also,  to  raise  seed  from  the  clover.  Honey 
bees'  tongues  are  too  short  to  reach  the  nectar  in  the  red  clover, 
but  in  most  other  clovers  they  find  it  well  enough,  the  white 
clover  and  alfalfa  being  noted  honey  plants  in  the  regions 
in  which  they  flourish. 


6o 


SOME  WATER  INSECTS. 

We  may  roughly  divide  water  insects,  from  our  point  of  view, 
into  two  groups,  (a)  insects  which  live  in  running  water,  in  brooks, 
and  (6)  insects  which  live  in  quiet  or  stagnant  water,  in  ponds. 
We  may  observe  water  insects  in  their  homes,  i.  e. ,  in  the  brook 
and  in  the  pond,  and  we  may  bring  them  alive  into  the  school- 
room and  watch  them  there.  To  do  this  we  need  aquaria.  To 
keep  the  brook  insects  alive  long  enough  to  observe  their  habits 
and  transformations  we  shall  require  a  running  water  aquarium, 
which  only  a  few  school-rooms  are  in  position  to  have.  But  the 
quiet  or  stagnant  water  aquarium  can  be  easily  made  and  main- 
tained in  any  school-room.  (For  directions  for  making  and  caring 
for  aquaria,  see  the  earlier  lesson  on  "Rearing  Insects."  )  Our 
observation  of  water  insects  may  be  divided  into  field  work  and 
school-room  work  ;  that  is,  observation  of  insects  in  the  brooks 
and  ponds,  and  observation  of  them  in  the  school-room  aquaria. 
Most  of  the  observing  of  brook  insects  must  be  field  work  ;  while 
most  of  the  observing  of  pond  insects  can  be  done  in  the  school- 
room. 

Brook  Insects. 

YOUNG  STONK- FLIES  AND  MAY- FLIES.  Find  a  place  where  the 
brook  is  shallow  and  running  quickly,  and  has  a  stony  bottom. 
Examine  the  under  side  of  a  number  of  the  stones  of  the  bottom 
and  you  will  almost  certainly  find  on  them  certain  flattened  in- 
sects from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  length,  which  run  quickly 
and  attempt  to  hide  in  the  inequalities  of  the  stone.  Note  that 
altho  these  insects  live  in  the  water  they  do  not,  like  many 
water  animals,  have  fins,  but  they  have  three  pairs  of  legs  with 
which  they  can  either  run  about  on  the  stones  or  swim  in  the 


BROOK   INSECTS 


61 


Fig.  32.     Young  Stone- 
fly  ;  g,  gills. 


water.  These  in- 
sect s  arc  either 
young  stone-flies 
(fig-  32)  or  young 
May-flies  (fig.  33). 
The  young  stone- 
flies  have  two  tiny 
claws  on  their  feet 
(examine  with  a 
magnifierj  and  are 
usually  more  flat- 
tened and  broader- 
bodied  than  the 
young  May-flies, 
whose  feet  end  in 
a  single  small  claw. 
Take  some  of  these 
insects  alive  to  the 
school  room,  where 
they  can  be  kept  in 


Fig.  33.   Young  May  fly;  5%  gillj 


a  glass  jar  of  water  for  a  day  or  two.  Put  one  of  them  into  a 
watch  glass  of  water,  and  examine  it  with  a  magnifier.  Is  it  a 
young  stone-fly  (two  claws  on  feet)  or  a  young  May -fly  (one  claw 
on  feet?)  Examine  the  delicate  gills  projecting  from  the  sides  of 
the  body  :  the  young  stone- flies  usually  have  three  pairs  of  gills 
on  the  thorax  (part  of  the  insect  from  which  the  legs  arise), 
which  are  tufts  of  short  gill-hairs  ;  the  young  May-flies  usually 
have  gills  all  along  the  abdomen,  which  may  be  transparent 
thin  plates,  or  composed  of  gill  hairs.  (For  an  account  of  the 
way  in  which  water  insects  breathe,  and  of  the  tracheal  gills, 
see  the  lesson,  "How  Insects  Breathe.")  Note  that  the  legs  of  the 
young  stone-fly  are  flattened  and  thickly  fringed  with  stout  hairs. 
What  for  ?  So  that  the  legs  may  serve  for  swimming  as  well  as 


62 


NATURE  STUDY 


for  running.  Note  the  long  filaments  projecting  backward  from 
the  posterior  tip  of  the  body.  Those  of  the  young  May-flies  are 
usually  three  in  number  and  fringed  with  hairs.  They  aid  in  the 
locomotion  of  the  insect.  Those  of  the  stone-fly  are  usually  two 
in  number,  and  their  use  is  not  known.  Some  kinds  of  young 
May-flies  live  in  ponds. 

I  have  been  careful  to  speak  of  these  insects  always  as  young 
stone- flies  and  young  May-flies.  For  they  are  stone-flies  and 
May-flies  in  their  immature,  or  so-called  nymphal  condition.  The 

adult  stone-flies 
(fig.  34)  and 
May-flies  (fig. 
35)  are  winged 
insects  which 
live  in  the  air, 
and  have  a  very 
different  appear- 
ance and  very 
different  habits 
from  the  young. 
It  is  possible 
that  you  may 
be  fortunate 
enough  to  obtain 
some  of  the 
winged  adults 
from  the  young 

34.   A  stone  fly.  which  you  carry 

into  the  school  room  aquaria.  If  you  can  find  some  young  May- 
flies in  a  pond,  so  that  you  can  keep  them  alive  in  the  permanent 
quiet  water  aquarium,  your  chances  for  seeing  the  issuance  are 
very  ranch  better.  There  is  a  certain  kind  of  May-fly  whose 
young  I  have  found  abundant  in  watering  troughs  in  September 


BROOK   INSECTS 


and   October   (near   Stanford   University)  and   winged  adults  of 

which   were   issuing   constantly   thru  those  months.    The  young 

May-flies  live  for  many  months,  some  species  for  one  or  two  or 

even    three    years,    in    the   water. 

The  life  of  the  adult  is,  on  the  con- 
trary, at  longest,  not  more  than  a 

few  days,  and  some  kinds  live   in 

the  winged  condition  for  but  a  few 

hours.    The  stone-flies  do  not  spend 

so  much  time  in  the  water,  nor  die 

so  soon  after  acquiring  wings. 

CADDICE-WORMS — Firmly  attached 

to  stones,  especially  large  ones,  in 

swift  parts  ot  the  stream,  may   be 

found    small    cases   (fig.  36  b)   or 

houses   composed   of    many   small 

pebbles  fastened  together  with  silk. 

In  more  quiet  places  in  the  stream 

may   be   found   either  attached   to 

stones  or  resting  on  the  bottom,  or 

sometimes   floating   in   the    water, 

elongate  cases  (Fig.  37),  an  inch  to  two  inches  long,  made  of  bits 

of  wood  fastened  together  with  silk  or  bits  of  pine  needles  or  even 

grass  stems  tied  cleverly  together 
by  silken  threads.  Or  tiny  cornu- 
copias (fig.  36  a)  composed  of  sand 
grains,  may  be  found.  All  these 
are  the  cases  of  the  caddice-worms 
or  case-woims,  and  the  caddice 
worm  itself  may  be  found  snugly 
concealed  in  its  case. 

Find  and  collect  as  many  different 
kinds  of  caddice-worms  cases  as  you 


Fig.  35. 


Fie.  36.    Caddlce-fly  cases   made   of 
«an<f  (a),  and  pebbles  (*). 


64  NATURE   STUDY 

can  ;  find  cases  with  the  head  and  fore  part  of  the  body  of  the 
worm  projecting  ;  find  cases  moving,  i.  e.,  dragged  by  the  slowly 
walking  caddis-worm,  Examine  a  caddis-worin  carefully  ;  note 
its  long,  soft,  grub-like  body ;  note  that  the  head  and  the  front 
pait  of  the  body  from  which  arise 
.the  legs,  namely,  that  part  of  the 
[body  which  projects  from  the  case, 
'has  a  strong,  hard  outer  wall. 

What  is  the    Case    for  ?       To    protect    Fig.  37.    Young  Caddi-e  fly  in  its  case 

the  soft,  defenseless  caddis-wormmadeof  pebblesandbitsofwood' 
from  the  many  predacebus  animals  which  live  in  the  brook. 
Why  is  the  head  and  front  part  of  the  body  so  much  harder  than 
the  rest  of  the  body?  Can  you  easily  pull  the  caddis-worm  out 
'of  its  case  ?  How  does  it  hold  itself  so  firmly  in  its  case  ?  By 
the  pair  of  ptrong  hooks  (legs)  which  are  located  on  the  posterior 
tip  of  the  body.  Note  that  the  front  pair  of  legs  (how  many 
pairs  are  there  ?)  are  longer  than  one  would  expect  to  find  on  such 
a  worm-like  insect ;  what  is  the  reason  for  this  condition  of  the 
legs?  How  does  the  caddis- woim  breathe  ? 

Not  all  of  the  caddis-worms  live  in  cases,  and  some  which 
'make  cases  do  not  remain  in  them  all  of  the  time,  so  that  you  may 
sometimes  find  caddis-worms  crawling  about  on  the  stones. 
Some  of  these  home-leaving  caddis- worms  make  tiny  nets  of  silk 
stretched  between  two  near-by  stones.  These  nets  are  ''usually 
funnel-shaped,  opening  up-stream  and  in  the  center  of  them  there 
is  a  portion  composed  of  threads  of  silk  extending  in  two  direc- 
tions at  right  angles  to  each  other,  so  as  to  form  meshes  of  sur- 
prising regularity.  It  is  as  if  a  spider  had  stretched  a  small  web 
in  the  water  where  the  current  is  swiftest"  The  caddis- worms 
Iwhich  build  these  nets  live  in  rude  cases  on  the  under  side  of 
stones.  The  cases  are  composed  of  an  inner  silken  tube  partly 
covered  with  little  pebbles. 

All  these  caddis- worms  are   the   young,  or  larvae,  of  caddis- 


BROOK    INSECTS  65 

flies  (fig.  38),  moth-like  flying  insects,   with  four  wings  covered 
with     hairs,      among     which     are  •        y 

distributed  many  flattened  scale- 
like  hairs.  The  antennae  are  very 
long  and  thread-like,  and  the  in- 
sects may  be  found  fluttering  among 
the  foliage  or  alight  upon  it,  at 
the  brook's  margin. 

Collect  and  put  into  the  school- 
room aquarium  a  number  of  those 
caddis  worms  (in  their  cases)  which 
you  find  in  the  quiet  places  of  the  brook.  These  may  live  in  the 
aquarium  and  an  opportunity  thus  had  to  observe  their  habits 
more  closely  and  also,  perhaps,  to  observe  the  manner  of  their 
transformation  into  winged  adults.  The  caddis  worm  or  young 
caddis-fly  does  not  transform  directly  into  the  winged  form  as 
does  the  young  stone-fly  or  May-fly.  When  ready  to  transform  it 
closes  the  opening  of  the  case  by  spinning  a  silken  sheet  across 
it  or  filling  it  with  a  stone,  The  opening  is  not  absolutely  closed, 
but  space  is  left  for  the  ingress  of  water  which  carries  oxygen  to  the 
insect  within.  Thus  enclosed,  the  caddis  worm  changes  to  a 
pupa,  that  is,  to  a  stage  in  which  the  insect  lies  quiescent,  taking 
no  food,  while  it  is  undergoing  the  great  structural  changes  neces- 
sary for  the  development  of  the  caddis-fly  from  the  caddis  worm. 
The  occurrence  of  this  change  to  a  pupa  (pupation,  the  changing 
is  called)  can  be  recognized  by  noticing  the  closed-up  condition 
of  the  case.  Such  closed  cases  may  be  found  in  the  brook,  and 
perhaps  in  the  aquarium.  Open  one  of  these  closed  cases  and 
examine  the  pupal  caddis-fly  within.  Note  how  the  legs  and  the 
developing  wings  of  the  caddis-fly  are  folded  against  the  body. 
Can  you  find  any  tracheal  gills  on  the  pupa?  Can  the  pupa 
move  ?  It  can  only  wriggle  a  little.  This  wriggling  or  bending  of 
the  body  is  necessary  to  keep  going  some  sort  of  a  current  of 


66 


NATURE   STUDY 


water,  so  that  oxygen  may  be  brought   in  and  the  exhaled  car- 
bonic acid  gas  carried  away. 

OTHER  BROOK  INSECTS.  —  The  young  stone-flies,  May-  flies 
and  caddice-flies  are  the  insects  of  the  brook  most  certainly  and 
easily  found.  On  the  surface  of  quiet  pools  may  be  seen  water- 
striders  and  whirligig  beetles,  but  these  may  more  certainly  be 
found  on  ponds,  and  are  described  among  the  "  pond  insects." 

You  may  find,  perhaps,  clinging  to  the  rock-bed  of  the 
stream  where  the  water  is  shallow  but  flowing  swiftly,  many  small 
black  worm  like  animals  (fig.  39,  a)  holding  firmly  to  the  rock 

by  one  end  while  the  rest 
of  the  body  stands  nearly 
upright  in  the  water  wav- 
ing about  as  the  swiftly 
running  water  strikes  it. 
These  are  the  young  or  lar- 
vae, of  the  black  fly,  a  small 

Jet      black»       hump-backed, 

two-  winged  fly  (fig.  40). 
The  black-fly  is  a  biting  fly  of  more  vicious  disposition  and 
more  effective  biting  ability  than  the  mosquito.  Take  some  of 
'these  squirming  black  larvae  to  the  school-room  and  examine 
'them  in  a  watch-glass  of  water  with  a  magnifier.  (They  cannot  be 
ikept  alive  long  in  quiet  water).  Note  the  odd  shape  of  the 
body.  Note  the  sucker  at  the  posterior  end  of  the  body,  by 
which  the  larvae  holds  fast  to  the  rock  despite  the  swift  current, 
Note  the  two  fan-shaped  organs  attached  to  the  head,  which  arc 
composed  each  of  fifty  hairs  rising  from  a  short,  stout  process; 
these  organs  are  waved  about  in  the  water,  sweeping  microscopic 
water  organisms  into  the  mouth.  You  may  find  among  these 
black-fly  larvae  a  number  of  odd  little  cornucopias  (fig.  39,  5), 
fastened  to  the  rock  by  their  lower  end.  From  the  upper  end  of 
each  cornucopia  a  pair  of  tiny  tufts  of  short  filaments  (tracheal 


and  pup*  (*)  of  the 


BROOK    INSECTS  6? 

gills)  project,  and  wave  gently  in  the  water.  These 
cornucopias  are  the  pupae  of  the  black-flies  ;  that 
is,   the  black  larvae  transform  into  these  cornu- 
copias, and  from  the  cornucopias  finally  come  the 
winged  black-flies.     If  there  are  no  pupae  among 
the  black-fly  larvae  when  you  first  find  the  colony, 
return  occasionally  to  the  spot  and  you  will  cer-     Fifir<  40*  ABlack'fl>' 
find  pupae  in  time. 


68 


Pond  Insects. 

Certain  pond  insects  are  found  swimming  or  running  on 
the  surface  of  the  water,  others  swimming  in  the  water,  and 
still  others  live  habitually  crawling  or  slowly  swimming  over  and 
thru  the  soft  mud  and  organic  detritus  at  the  bottom  of  the  pool 
or  pond. 

WATER-STRIDKRS  AND  WHIRLIGIG  BEETLES. — Running 
quickly  about  on  the  surface  of  almost  any  pond  or  quiet  brook 
pool,  may  be  seen  numerous  rather  large,  blackish,  narrow- bodied 
long  legged  insects  (fig.  41),  the  water-striders,  or  pond  skaters, 

as  they  are  sometimes  called. 
The  water-striders  run  or  leap 
quickly  over  the  water's  surface 
when  disturbed;  when  at  rest 
they  have  the  two  hinder  pairs 
of  long,  thread-like  legs  out- 
stretched, while  the  front  pair 
~~  of  shorter,  stouter  legs  is  held 
projecting  forwards  close  to  the 
head,  ready  tor  grasping  and 
holding  smaller  insects  which 
are  the  prey  of  the  water-striders. 
For  these  insects  are  predaceous, 

Fig.  41.    A  Water-strider  (Hygrotrechus.)     living     On      the    blood     of      Other 

insects  which  come  up  from  be- 
low to  breathe,  or  the  flying  insects  which  may  happen  to  fall 
into  the  pool. 

The  water-striders  may  be  observed  on  the  surface  of  their 
own  pool,  or  they  may  be  brought  to  the  school- room  and  readily 
kept  and  watched  in  the  quiet  water  aquarium.  (A  glass  jar  half 
filled  with  water.)  A  few  house  flies  or  other  non-swimming  insects 
should  be  thrown  on  the  water  to  serve  as  food  for  the  water- 
•triders.  The  surface  of  the  water  should  not  be  too  near  the 


POND   INSECTS  69 

top  of  the  aquarium, for  the  water-striders  can  leap  several  inches, 
and  might  thus  escape. 

Observe  the  character  and  disposition  of  the  different  pafre 
of  legs  of  the  water-striders.  Note  their  use  in  running  and 
grasping  their  prey.  Are  the  legs  of  the  water-strider  thrust  into 
the  water  ?  No,  they  rest  on  top  of  the  water,  the  whole  weight 
of  the  insect  being  supported  by  the  tense  surface  film  (  see  the 
lesson  on  the  mosquito).  Note  the  "dimples"  or  depressions  in 
this  film  where  the  feet  press  it  down.  Are  the  water-striders 
winged  or  wingless  ?  They  may  be,  strangely  enough,  either 
winged  or  wingless;  that  is,  there  are  two  kinds  of  individuals  of 
water-striders.  In  addition  to  the  elongate  narrow-bodied  forms 
you  may  see  some  individuals  with  shorter,  broader  bodies,  either 
entirely  without  wings  or  with  short  wing-pads  or  growing  wings. 
These  are  simply  the  young  or  immature  water-striders.  Exam- 
ine one  of  the  insects  closely,  using,  if  necesssary,  the  magnifier. 
Note  the  slender,  sharp-pointed,  little  beak  which  projects  from  the 
head.  Note  the  black  bead-like  eyes.  The  under  side  of  the  body 
is  covered  with  a  fine  pile  or  pubescence.  If  you  hold  the  water- 
strider  in  the  water  (underneath  the  surface)  the  underside  of  the 
body  will  be  silvery  white,  showing  that  a  film  of  air  is  held  en- 
tangled in  the  pubescence,  and  preventing  the 
wetting  of  the  body.  When  you  let  loose  of  the 
insect  it  will  rise  immediately  to  the  surface,  and 
run  about  as  usual,  having  not  been  wetted  by  its 
submersion  in  the  water. 

The    whirligig  beetles    (fig.  42)  are,  like  the 

,    .  ,  ,.  .  Fig.  42.  Whirl- 

water-stnders,  surface  insects  they  are  to  be  -igig-beetie  (Gy 
found  in  the  same  places  with  the  water-striders. 
These  whirligig  beetles  are  small  (usually  about  one- third  of 
an  inch  long),  oval  or  elliptical,  flattened,  shining  black 
insects,  which  dart  swiftly  about  in  curving  paths  on  the  water. 
They  may  readily  be  kept  in  the  school- room  aquarium.  Do  they 


70  NATURE   STUDY 

run  and  leap  as  the  water- striders  do,  or  swim  ?  Unlike  the 
water-striders  also,  they  occasionally  dive  and  swim  beneath  the 
surface.  How  do  they  breathe  ?  Note  the  little  silvery  bubble 
almost  always  visible  at  the  posterior  tip  of  the  body  when  the 
beetle  is  swimming  underneath  the  surface.  Examine  one  of  the 
insects  closely,  using  a  magnifier.  Note  that  it  has  four  eyes, 
one  pair  on  the  lower  surface  ol  the  head,  just  underneath  the 
pair  on  the  upper  surface.  Note  also  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  legs, 
the  front  pair  being  rather  slender  and  oar-like,  while  the  hinder 
two  pairs  are  short,  broad  and  paddle-like;  all  are,  however, 
adapted  for  swimming. 

In  addition  to  the  water-striders  and  whirligig  beetles, numer- 
ous other  smaller  insects  may  be  found  on  the  surface  of  pools 
and  ponds.  Many  small  two- winged  flies  run  about  on  the  sur- 
face in  search  of  food,  and  certain  small  sucking  bugs  may  often 
be  found  running  about  on  the  wet  shores  of  the  pond  or  upon 
the  water  near  the  edge. 

WATER-BUGS  AND  WATER-BEETLES. — In  the  pools  on  the 
surface  of  which  the  water-striders  and  whirligig  beetles  are 
found,  may  be  found  certain  insects  which  swim  vigorously  about 
in  the  water,  coming  occasionally  to  the  surface  and  resting  there 
a  'short  time.  These  are  the  water-bugs 
and  water-beetles.  The  water-beetles  (fig. 
43)  are  large,  shining  black,  elliptical  in- 
sects from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  and 
a  half  long;  the  water-bugs  (figs.  44  and 
45)  are  smaller, being  less  than  half  an  inch 
long,  and  they  are  gray  in  general  color 
instead  of  black.  Each  of  these  water- 
bugs  and  water-beetles  has  three  pairs  of 
legs,  of  which  one  pair  is  usually  especially 
long  and  flattened,  so  as  to  be  oar-like. 

Fig.  43.    "Water-scavenger     ,_.,  .  . 

beetle  (Hydrophtius).  They   have   wings,  which  are  kept  closely 


POND   INSECTS  71 

folded  on  the  back  while  the  insect  is  in  the  water.  With  a  water 
net  collect  a  number  of  both  the  larger  black  insects  (the  water- 
beetles)  and  the  smaller  gray  insects  (the  water-bugs)  and  pu> 
them  into  glass  jars  of  water  in  the  school-room. 

Watch  the  big  black  beetles  first.  There  are  two  kinds,  both 
looking  much  alike,  but  differing  in  their  food  habits.  One  kind, 
the  "predaceous  diving-beetles,"  kill  and  eat  other  water  insects; 
while  the  other  kind,  the  "water-scavenger  beetles"  (fig.  43), feed 
on  decaying  vegetation  (tho  they  occasionally  attack  other  insects). 
Try  to  observe  the  feeding  of  the  beetles  in  the  aquarium.  Observe 
the  position  of  the  body,  when  one  of  the  beetles  is  at  rest,  just 
underneath  the  surface.  If  the  beetle  hangs  head  downward  with 
the  tip  of  the  abdomen  at  the  surface,  it  is  one  of  the  predaceous 
diving-beetles;  but  if  the  head  end  of  the  body  is  kept  at  the  sur- 
face, it  is  one  of  the  water-scavenger  beetles. 

When  the  beetles  are  resting  at  the  surface  they  are  breathing, 
or  rather  they  are  collecting  air  which  they  breathe  after  they  sink 
beneath  the  surface.  The  water-beetles  do  not  remain  at  the  sur- 
face most  of  the  time  as  the  mosquito  wrigglers  do,  nor  do  they 
remain  underneath  the  surface  all  the  time  as  the  young  May- 
flies do.  They  do  not  have  to  come  to  the  surface  every  time 
they  wish  to  breathe  but  they  have  no  gills  to  enable  them  to  take 
up  the  air  which  is  mixed  with  water.  The  way  in  which  they 
solve  the  problem  of  breathing  under  water  is  this:  they  come  to 
the  surface  occasionally  and  collect  a  supply  of  air  which  they 
take  down  with  them.  The  two  kinds  of  beetles  do  this  in  dif- 
ferent ways.  The  predaceous  diving-beetles  force  the  posterior 
tip  of  the  body  above  the  surface  and  slightly  lift  the  tips  of  the 
horny  black  wing-covers  which  lie  on  the  back.  Air  rushes  in 
under  these  wing-covers  and  is  held  there  by  the  closing  of  the 
tips.  This  process  can  be  readily  observed.  Tie  breathing  pores 
or  spiracles  of  the  beetle  are  situated  along  each  side  of  its  back 
underneath  the  wing-covers  so  that  the  air  held  under  the  wing- 


NATURE  STUDY 


rovers  readily  finds  its  way  into  the  beetle's  body.  The  water- 
scavenger  beetle  carries  most  of  its  air  supply  on  its  under  or  ven- 
tral surface,  where  it  is  held  in  a  lot  of  fine  short  hairs.  The  air 
gives  the  under  side  of  the  beetle  a  shining  silvery  appearance. 
The  air  is  held  by  the  fine  hairs  by  virtue  of  the  surface  film.  If 
3rou  dip  a  bit  of  cloth  having  a  pile,  as  velvet,  into  water,  you 
will  see  that  it  retains  underneath  the  water  a  nearly  complete 
coating  of  air.  The  under  side  of  the  water-scavenger  beetle  is 
covered  in  places  with  a  fine  pubescence  which  acts  as  the  pile  of 
the  velvet  does. 

Kill  one  of  the  beetles  and  examine  it.  How  many  wings 
has  it  ?  Note  that  the  hind  wings,  which  are  larger  than  the 
front  wings  and  are  thin  and  membraneous,  are  folded  both  longi- 
tudinally and  transversely  underneath  the  stiff,  horny  fore  wings. 
The  hind  wings  are  the  true  flying  wings,  the  fore  wings  being 
chiefly  used  as  a  firm  protecting  covering  for  the  hind  wings  when 
the  beetle  is  in  the  water.  Altho  the  water-  beetles  live  naturally 
in  water,  they  are  provided  with 
wings  with  which  they  are  en- 
abled to  escape  from  a  drying 
pond  or  from  a  pond  which  be- 
comes over  stocked  with  their 
kind. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  water- 
bugs  as  well  as  two  kinds  of 
water-beetles.  Some  of  the  bugs 
swim  with  back  downward,  i.  e., 
upside  down,  and  are  called  back- 
swimmers;  the  Others  Swim  in 
normal  position  with  back  upper- 

most and  are  called  water-boatmen.  The  two  kinds  differ, 
also,  in  their  markings,  the  water-boatmen  (fig.  45),  hav- 
ing the  back  greenish  gray  with  a  fine  black  mottling, 


A  Back-swimmer  (J\olonecta). 


POND   INSECTS  •       73 

while  the  back-swimmers  (fig.  44)  have  the  back  blu- 
ish black  with  large  creamy  white  patches.  Both  kinds  come  to 
the  surface  to  get  air,  the  water-boatmen  very  much  more  rarely 
than  the  back-swimmers.  The  water-bugs,like  the  water-beetles, 
carry  down  with  them  into  the  water  a  supply  of  air  held  on  the 
outside  of  the  body.  The  air  clings  to  a  large  part  of  the  body 
lying  both  under  the  folded  wings  and  ou  the  exposed  surface  of 
the  body.  Note  the  difference  in  the  disposition  of  the  air  in  the 
two  kinds  of  bugs.  Is  there  a  difference  in  their  weight  as  com- 
pared with  the  weight  of  water  ?  What  part  of  the  body  projects 
above  the  surface  when  the  bug  comes  up  for  air  ?  Note  the  cus- 
tomary position  of  the  body  and  legs  as  one  of  the  back -swimmers 
lies  at  rest  just  underneath  the  surface  with  the  tip  of  the  abdomen 
projecting  very  slightly  above  it.  Which  pair  of  legs  is  the  row- 
ing pair?  Throw  some  non- swimming  insects,  as  house-flies,  in- 
to the  water  and  observe  the  actions  of  the  back-swimmers  with 
regard  to  them.  Kill  a  few  back-swimmers  in  the  cyanide  bottle 
and  examine  them.  Note, that  altho  they  are  aquatic  insects, they 

have  wings;  they  are  thus  able  to 
fly  from  pond  to  pond.  Note  the 
oar- like  character  of  the  swim- 
ming legs;  note  their  broad  fringes 
of  hair.  Note  the  sharp-pointed 
strong  beak  which  the  back- 
swimmer  thrusts  into  the  bodies 
of  its  prey,  and  thru  which  the, 
blood  of  the  captured  insect  is 

Fig.  45.    A  Water-boatman  (Corisa).  1      j  /~\  i_ 

sucked.  Care  must  be  exer- 
cised in  handling  live  back-swimmers,  as  they  can  inflict  a  pain- 
ful sting  with  the  sharp  beak. 

Note  that  the  water- boatmen  keep  usually  to  the  bottom  of 
the  aquarium,  coming  only  rarely  to  the  surface  ior  air.  Note 
their  favorite  resting  position.  In  what  way  does  this  differ  from 


74 


NATURE   STUDY 


that  of  the  back-swimmers  ?  Note  that  the  long  oar-like  legs  are 
the  hind-most  pair,  not  the  middle  pair,  as  in  the  case  of  the  back- 
swimmer.  The  water-boatmen,  like  the  back-swimmers,  suck 
the  blood  of  other  insects  by  means  of  a  beak,  and  have  wings. 

A  third  kind  of  water  bug 
may  often  be  found  resting 
or  crawling  at  the  bottom  of 
ponds.  These  are  the  giant 
water- bugs,  some  kinds  of  which 
are  really  giants  among  insects. 
The  larger  ones,  the  true  giant 
water-bugs,  are  readily  recog- 
nizable by  their  size,  their 
bodies  being  an  inch  wide  and 
two  and  a  half  inches  long. 
They  are  not  black  like  the 
great  water-beetles  but  a  dingy 
brownish  gray.  Their  fore  legs 
are  fitted  for  grasping  and  they 
have  a  short,  sharp  beak  pro- 
jecting from  the  under  side  of 
the  head.  Some  of  the  members 
of  the  giant  water-bug  family  are  smaller,  a  kind  common 
in  California,  being  about  an  inch  and  a  half  long  and  about 
half  as  wide  (fig.  46).  If  you  can  find  one  of  these  giant  water- 
bugs  put  it  into  the  aquarium  and  observe  its  manner  of  hiding. 
It  keeps  itself  concealed  as  well  as  possible  under  the  stones  at 
the  bottom.  It  is  a  blood-thirsty  creature  feeding,  like  the  other 
water-bugs,  on  the  blood  of  other  insects.  The  giant  water-bugs 
are  so  strong  that  they  often  seize  and  kill  young  fish. 

YOUNG  DRAGON  FLIES. — Drag  out  with  a  rake  some  of  the 
decaying  vegetation  and  muddy  detritus  from  the  bottom  of  a 
stagnant  pond,  and  you  will  almost  certainly  find  in  the  slimy 


Fig.  46.    A  Giaut  Water-bug  (Serphus). 


POND   INSECTS 


75 


mass  a  number  of  curious  creatures  of  the  appearance  shown  in 
figure  47  or  figure  48.  These  are  young  dragon-flies  and  can  be 
unmistakably  known  by  the  peculiar,  folded,  broad  flat  under-'lip 
which  covers  mask-like  the  whole  of  the  under  side  of  the  head, 

(fig.  49).  This  lower  lip  can  be 
unfolded  and  projected  some  dis- 
tance in  front  of  the  head  (fig.  50). 
Some  of  these  young  dragon-flies 
live  on  the  very  bottom  of  the 
pond  crawling  about  in  the  mud 
and  decaying  vegetable  matter 
while  others  cling  to  the  stems  of 
the  water  plants,  some  distance 
above  the  bottom.  The  young 
dragon-flies  vary  considerably  in 
appearance,  but  there  are  two 
principal  groups  into  which  they 
thT£bodied\°indg  Dra^on-fly;  -hort'  may  be  divided.  First,  stout- 
bodied,  usually  rather  short  ones  (fig.  47);  and  second,  long  slen- 
der-bodied ones  with  three  usually  long,  blade-like  flaps  pro- 
jecting backward  from  the  posterior  tip  of  the  body 
(fig.  48.).  Collect  some  of  both  kinds  and  carry 
them,  in  a  jar  of  water,  to  the  school-room.  Here 
they  may  be  kept  alive  in  the  still  water  aquarium, 
and  their  feeding  habits,  and  perhaps  their  trans_ 
formation  into  adult,  winged  dragon-flies,  observed. 
Kill  one  or  two  of  each  kind  in  the  cyanide  bottle, 
and  examine  the  bodies.  On  the  back  may  readily 
be  seen  the  growing  wings.  With  a  pair  of  forceps 
or  a  pin,  unfold  the  hinged  lower-lip  and  note  that 
its  broad  tip  is  composed  of  two  jaw-like  flaps,  each  wiy 
fringed  on  its  inner  margin  with  fine  teeth.  Ex-  der-bodi«d'kind, 
aminethe  hinge,  and  note  how  far  this  grasping  lower-lip  is  folded. 


76 


NATURE  STUDY 


Fig.  49. 

view  show 

ed  under-lip. 


Examine,  also,  the  thin  flat  blade  or  oar-like  processes  at  the  poster- 
ior extremity  of  the  slender- bodied  young  dragon-flies.  Thes« 
are  tracheal  gills  for  breathing,  and  with  a  magnifier  the  fine  dark 
branching  air-tubes  (tracheae)  can  be  seen  in  them. 

Observe  now  the  young  dragon- 
flies  in  the  aquarium.  If  there  are 
some  soft-bodied  insects  in  the 
water,  you  will  not  have  to  watch 
long  before  you  can  see  the  grasp- 
inSY?a«Scorrfd"byJ[ilefoTdl  ing  lower-lip  at  work.  As  anun- 
suspecting  insect  swims  by  the 
masked  face  of  the  young  dragon-fly,  like  a  flash  the  lower  lip 
darts  forward  and  those  two  fine-toothed  grasping  flaps  at  the  tip 
seize  the  insect,  and  carry  it,  as  the  lip  folds  up  again,  to  the 
strong  jaws  of  the  captor.  The  young  dragon- 
flies  are  very  voracious,  and  they  will  soon  capture 
and  eat  most  of  the  other  soft  bodied  insects  in  the 
aquarium. 

The  eggs  of  the  dragon- flies  are  either  drop- 
ped into  the  water  by  the  females  which  fly  about 
over  the  pond,  or  are  placed  in  slits  cut  into  the 
stems  of  water  plants.  The  young  dragon-flies 
live  for  from  a  few  months  to  nearly  a  year,  gradu 
ally  growing  larger,  and  the  wings  slowly  develop- 
ing. When  ready  to  transform,  the  young  dragon-fly  crawls  up 
on  the  stem  of  some  water  plant  or  projecting  stick  or  stone,  out 
of  the  water;  the  skin  breaks  along  the  back,  and  slowly 
the  winged  dragon-fly  issues.  This  transformation  takes  place 
usually  in  the  early  morning  hours,  and  this  cannot  be  conven- 
iently observed  by  the  class.  If  you  bring  into  the  aquarium,  - 
however,  a  number  of  young  dragon-flies  at  the  time  of  year 
(the  late  spring  and  early  summer)  when  they  are  transforming, 
the  process  may  be  observed  in  the  school-room. 


POND    INSECTS 


77 


Fig.  51.    Dragoii-fly;  broad-winged  kind. 


It  will  be  inter- 
esting to  have  the 
class  observe  the 
behavior  of  the 
adult  dragon-flies. 
They  may  be  found 
flying  swiftly  about 
over  the  surface  or 
along  the  banks  of 
ponds,  and  along 
the  shores  of  quiet 
streams.  The  dra- 
gon-flies are  among  insects  like  the  haw'fcs  among  birds.  They 
capture  in  the  air  other  smaller  insects  and  eat  them. 

''While  one  is  standing  by  the  pond,  let  him  follow 
awhile  the  actions  of  a  dragon-fly  that  is  making  short 
dashes  in  different  directions 
close  to  the  bank.  Let  him  fix 
his  eye  on  a  little  fly  hovering 
in  the  air,  and  note  that  after 
the  dragon-fly  has  made  a  dart 
toward  it,  it  is  gone.  Let  him 
repeat  the  observation  as  the 
dragon-fly  goes  darting  hither 
and  thither.  It  will  be  hard  to 
see  the  flies  captured, so  quickly 
it  is  done,  but  one  can  see  that  Fiff>52  Dragon.fly  narrow.wlnged  ^ 
the  place  that  once  knew  them  sometimes  called  damsel-fly- 
knows  them  no  more."  The  flying  dragon-flies  are  of  different 
kinds,  but  like  the  young  dragon-flies  can  all  be  roughly  classed 
in  two  groups;  the  large  dragon -flies  (fig.  51)  with  heavy  bodies, 
and  with  rather  broad  wings,  the  hind  wings  being  broader 
than  the  fore  wings,  and  smaller  dragon-flies  (fig.  52)  (01 


78  NATURE  STUDY 

damsel-flies,  as  this  kind  is  sometimes  called)  with  slender 
bodies,  and  narrow  wings,  the  fore  and  hind  wings  being  equal. 
The  first  kind  are  the  adults  of  the  short,  stout-bodied  young,  and 
the  second  kind,  or  damsel-flies,  are  the  adults  of  the  elongate, 
slender-bodied  young. 


79 
HEAT. 

With  this  subject  will  be  introduced  a  series  of  lessons  J>n 
some  of  the  most  common  phenomena  of  air,  water  and  soils.  It 
seems  more  generally  thought  that  plants  and  animals  furnish  the 
best  material  for  nature  study  lessons.  On  this  account  it  is  not 
out  of  place  to  point  out  here  that  certain  excellent  advantages 
possessed  by  non-living  phenomena  have  been  overlooked,  and 
consequently  some  of  the  best  material  for  this  work  has  been 
widely  neglected. 

In  the  first  place  it  is  usually  supposed  that  children  have  a 
more  vivid  interest  in  plants  and  animals  than  in  things  without 
life.  This  is  apparently  true,  but  their  interest  has  arisen  from 
the  conspicuousness  of  the  plants  and  animals,  especially  the  lat- 
ter. They  are  constantly  disporting  themselves  before  them. 
Then  their  kinship  in  the  possessing  of  life,  and  their  sympathy 
in  the  organisms  exhibiting  that  life  is  keen  and  peculiar,  and 
cannot  be  replaced  by  any  other  forms  of  interest.  Still  this  in- 
terest may  be  strong,  and  may  even  be  strengthened  with  but 
little  advance  in  the  study  of  nature.  The  animal  and  plant  con- 
stitute little  as  educational  material  if  they  simply  appeal  to  the 
emotions.  We  must  make  use  of  those  phenomena  for  this  work 
which  allow  the  seeing  of  facts  and  the  drawing  of  conclusions  from 
them;  for  example,  the  adaptations  of  the  plant  or  animal  to  its 
surroundings,  or  the  contrivances  it  has  for  doing  those  things 
which  make  up  its  daily  life.  In  other  words,  we  are  to  seek  ex- 
planations of  the  organism.  Since  the  life  of  the  animal  or  plant 
is  very  complex,  it  naturally  follows  that  the  number  of  phenom- 
ena in  the  life  of  any  plant  or  animal  which  can  be  fairly  isolated, 
and  whose  explanation  is  fairly  within  the  powers  of  the  child  are 
comparatively  few.  We  arc  then  led  into  temptation  in  two  di- 
rections: either  we  pass  over  into  the  region  which  requires  more 
power  of  analysis  and  01  generalization  than  the  child  possesses, 


80  NATURE  STUDY 

as  in  the  more  difficult  matters  of  structure  and  of  function,  or  we 
take  up  that  which  has  no  significance  at  this  stage,  such  as  the 
number  and  names  of  the  parts  of  an  insect's  leg,  or  the  tech- 
nical names  of  the  shapes  of  leaves.  In  either  case  the  work  in 
nature  study  will  be  a  failure,  and  is  to  be  classed  with  other 
meaningless  work  that  children  are  called  on  to  memorize. 

Now,  among  the  phenomena  of  the  world  of  non-living  things, 
there  are  a  number  which  are  simple  enough  to  be  readily  grasped 
by  school  children.  They  are  of  intense  interest  to  them  when 
once  seen.  Their  lack  of  initiative  interest  in  them  is  easily  ac- 
counted for  by  their  ignorance  of  their  existence.  The  peculiar 
nature  of  many  of  these  phenomena  allow  them  to  be  fairly  well 
isolated,  so  that  they  can  be  studied  without  involving,  at  the 
time,  confusing  relations.  The  experiments  can  be  repeated  as 
often  as  necessary  to  allow  better  seeing  to  correct  errors  in  ob- 
servation and  conclusion.  The  materials  are  always  available 
and  the  success  of  the  experiment  does  not  depend  on  time  and 
place,  but  may  be  completely  under  the  control  of  the  one  making 
it.  Thus  they  give  the  means  of  that  most  excellent  drill  involved 
in  planning  and  executing  an  experiment  which  is  a  real  inquiry 
of  nature. 

The  value  of  the  information  received  from  lessons  on  the 
common  physical  phenomena  is  certainly  second  to  none  other  ot 
the  school  course,  since  it  deals  with  such  important  matters  as 
air,  water  and  soil. 

Many  of  these  lessons,  beside  forming  a  part  of  the  nature 
study  course,  may  well  take  their  place  in  the  work  of  geography. 
There  are  many  subjects  touched  upon  in  the  usual  courses  in  geo- 
graphy, which  would  have  more  meaning  if  the  phenomena  on 
which  their  explanation  depends  were  experimentally  studied  by 
the  classes.  Among  such  subjects  are  rain,  frost,  ice,  winds, 
storms,  electricity,  magnetism,  and  means  for  measuring  time. 
There  are  many  experiments  which  would  throw  much  light  on 


HEAT  8 I 

these  larger  phenomena,  which  can  be  performed  in  the  school 
room  with  small  trouble,  very  simple  apparatus,  and  without  uie 
requisite  of  a  technical  training  in  physics  and  chemistry. 

The  lessons  that  follow  must  necessarily  be  limited  in  num- 
ber, and  are  chosen  to  illustrate  the  kind  of  material  that  is  open 
to  us.  As  in  other  portions  of  this  series  of  papers,  the  subjects 
treated  are  to  be  regarded  as  representative  of  a  rich  field,  from 
which  the  nature  study  teacher  is  privileged  to  draw.  Those 
here  selected  are  arranged  so  that  they  lead  to  a  general  progress 
into  larger  phenomena  and  wider  generalizations,  still  within  the 
limit  of  children  of  school  age.  This  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  an 
attempt  at  teaching  the  science  of  physics  in  the  lower  grades. 

The  following  subjects  experimentally  treated,  beside  being 
most  excellent  material  for  drill  in  what  nature  study  is  to  give, 
will  also  furnish  a  good  basis  for  understanding  ranch  about  heat, 
air  and  water,  and  the  large  part  played  by  these  agencies  in  the 
form  and  structure  of  the  earth's  surface.  We  will  begin  this 
series  with  some  simple  lessons  on  heat. 

Heat  Expands  Water. 

Fill  a  flask  or  a  bottle  with  water.  Such  a  flask  as  given  in 
the  figure  is  of  a  kind  of  glass  that  can  be  heated  without  danger 
of  breaking.  Close  it  with  a  cork  thru  which  a  glass  tube  passes. 
A  short  tube  will  auswer,  but  if  two  or  three  feet  long  it  will  be 
better. 

To  start  with,  have  sufficient  water  in  the  flask  to  extend  up 
into  the  tube  two  or  three  inches.  Be  sure  to  have  no  air  bubbles 
in  with  the  water.  Allow  members  of  the  class  to  fill  and  arrange 
the  apparatus.  Let  all  see  clearly  just  how  everything  is  arranged. 


82 


NATURE  STUDY 


Place  the  flask  on  the  stove,  or  over  an  al- 
cohol lamp,  and  have  the  class  observe  the 
result,  and,  if  they  can  do  so,  explain  why 
the  water  rises.  If  the  simple  explanation 
that  the  heat  makes  the  water  larger  (ex- 
pands it),  is  not  given,  do  not  give  it  but  al- 
low them  more  time  to  think  on  the  mat- 
ter. If  wrong  explanations  are  offered  do 
not  immediately  reject  them,  but  ask  for 
proofs  or  devise  experiments  which  disprove 
the  offered  explanation.  For  example,  if  a 
child  insists  that  the  water  rises  in  the  tube 
"  because  heated  water  is  lighter  and  goes 
up,"  place  the  apparatus  so  that  it  extends  in 
a  horizontal  position,  and  repeat  the  experi- 
ment. The  above  may  occupy  the  time  of 
more  than  one  lesson.  It  ought  not  to  be 
hurriedly  passed  over.  In  subsequent  lessons 
it  may  be  proposed  to  experiment  with  other 
liquids.  Allow  the  children  to  select  the 
liquids,  arrange  the  apparatus,  and  try  the 
experiments  as  far  as  possible.  The  effect  of 
cold  may  be  studied  also. 

When  a  few  liquids  are  thus  experimented 
with  and  comparisons  made  between  them, 
the  thermometer  may  be  introduced.  It  is 
to  be  seen  as  a  small  flask  filled  with  mercury, 
or  with  colored  alcohol. 

A  number  of  simple  experiments  can  be 

Jevised  with  the  thermometer  which  will  make  clear  its  use  in 

determining  the  temperature  of  things. 

In  all  experiments  give  as  much  chance  as  possible  for  each 


Fig.    53.     lixpansion  of 
water  by  heat. 


HEAT  83 

one  to  express  his  individual  opinion,  and  to  ask  his  own  ques- 
tions. Do  not  by  your  conduct  with  the  class  put  a  premiums 
much  on  any  kind  of  answers,  even  bright  ones,  as  on  earnest 
questions  and  answers.  Give  all  such,  even  if  apparently  ignor- 
ant and  far  from  right,  every  con- 
sideration. Children,  like  other 
people,  are  sensitive  in  regard  to 
the  respect  given  to  their  opinions. 
Nothing  with  them  is  so  inimical 
to  the  independent  formation  of 
opinion  as  to  have  their  opinions 
treated  with  disrespect.  If  one 
is  wrong,  prove  that  he  is  wrong, 
but  neither  ridicule  him  nor  ride 
over  him.  Avoid  allowing  a  few 
to  lead  the 
class  and  set 
opinions  for 
the  rest 

HEAT  EX- 
PANDS AIR — 
Use  the 
flask  and  tube 
of  the  experi- 
ment of  heat 
expanding 
water.  Have 
the  flask  clean 
and  dry.  Place 
the  end  of  the 
tube  under 
water.  Warm  ri«- 


84  NATURE  STUDY 

the  flask  with  the  flame  of  the  lamp.  As  the  bubbles  of  air 
escape  have  the  children  observe  what  happens  and  explain.  Cool 
the  flask.  Repeat  the  experiment  several  times;  or  better,  allow 
the  children  to  repeat  it. 

See  how  sensitive  the  air  is  to  even  a  small  amount  of  heat. 
Arrange  flask  and  tube  so  that  the  mouth  of  the  tube  is  covered 
with  water,  having  driven  out  enough  air  so  that  the  water  will 
rise  well  up  in  the  tube.  Place  the  hand  or  just  one  or  two  fin- 
gers on  the  flask  and  observe  the  change  of  volume. 

Arrange  the  flask  and  tube  in  a  horizontal  position.  Get  -a 
little  water  in  about  the  middle  of  the  tube.  It  is  better  to  have 
it  colored  with  ink  or  some  other  coloring  matter;  this  will  enable 
its  motions  to  be  more  plainly  seen.  Repeat  the  experiments  with 
this  apparatus.  It  will  be  very  sensitive  to  small  amounts  of  heat. 

In  addition  to  these  experiments,  which  are  to  be  examined 
very  closely  and  seen  clearly  till  they  are  well  understood,  many 
other  illustrations  of  the  fact  that  heat  expands  air  may  be 
devised  by  both  the  pupils  and  teacher.  For  example,  a  football 
or  a  bladder  partly  blown  up,  then  heated,  fills  out  by  expansion 
of  the  contained  air. 

The  flask  and  tube  with  a  paper  scale  may  be  used  as  an  air 
thermometer.  For  this  purpose  support  the  flask  so  that  it  stands 
perpendicularly  with  the  mouth  of  the  tube  immersed  in  water, 
with  the  water  rising  a  little  way  up  in  the  tube.  Or  support  the 
whole  in  a  horizontal  position,  putting  a  drop  of  liquid  in  the 
tube.  In  the  latter  case  a  drop  of  water  can  not  be  used,  as  it 
will  evaporate.  Use  a  small  tube  and  a  drop  of  strcng  sulphuric 
acid  or  a  drop  of  mercury. 

What  makes  the  best  thermometer  of  the  substances  thus  far 
used?  Why?  Give  time  for  discussion  and  comparative  experi- 
ments. 


HEAT 


Heat  Expands  Solids. 

The  question  may  now  be  asked  of  the 
pupils:  Does  heat  expand  solids?  They  will 
be  ready  to  say  that  they  think  that  it  does, 
and  now  comes  the  opportunity  of  having 
them  devise  a  means  of  proving  it.  If,  un- 
aided, anyone  of  the  class  can  invent  such 
apparatus  the  results  will  be  excellent.  The 
following  are  some  simple  forms  of  appa- 
ratus used  to  illustrate  expansion  of  solids. 
A  metal  ball  just  passing  through  a  metal 
ring  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the 
room  will  not  pass  when  heated,  and  will 
pass  more  readily  when  the  ring  is  heated. 
An  iron  or  other  metal  bolt  nicely  fitting 
into  a  hole  in  another  piece  of  metal  may 
'be  used  in  the  same  way.  A  simple  appara- 
tus can  be  made  which  will  show  expansion 
in  rods  of  various  metals,  or  of  various  forms 
such  as  poker,  stove  lid,  gas  pipe,  etc.  Two 
heavy  blocks  of  wood  are  used  to  support 
the  object.  Into  the  top  of  one  block  a  nail 
is  driven  projecting  above  the  top  of  the 
block.  One  end  of  the  object  (iron  poker  for 
example)  is  supported  by  this  block,  the  end 
of  the  poker  being  pushed  firmly  against  the 
projecting  nail,  the  other  end  of  the  poker  is 
supported  by  the  other  block,  the  end  pro- 
jecting beyond  the  block.  When  the  poker 
is  heated  the  strip  prevents  the  expanding 
poker  from  pushing  in  that  direction,  thus 
the  whole  of  the  movement  is  shown  at  the 


Figf.  55.    Apparatus 
showing     expausio  u    of 
a  metal  rod  by  heat. 


86  NATURE  STUDY 

free  end.  As  the  expansion  is  very  small,  it  may  be  made  con- 
spicuous by  use  of  an  indicator,  made  as  follows:  On  a  small 
upright  support  high  enough  to  stand  just  behind  the  free  end  of 
the  poker,  place  a  card  with  degrees  of  a  circle  marked  on  it.  At 
the  center  of  the  circle  fasten  a  pin  or  small  nail  on  which  turns 
as  a  pivot  a  slender  strip  of  wood  as  a  lever.  If  the  short  end  of 
the  lever  is  placed  against  the  end  of  the  poker  when  it 
pands  the  long  end  as  a  pointer  passes  over  the  gradua- 
ted circle,  giving  a  magnified  view  of  the  expansion.  If  one  end 
of  the  lever  is  very  short,  and  the  other  long,  a  small  amount  of 
expansion  may  be  detected.  On  this  simple  apparatus  many 
objects  may  be  tested.  The  heating  may  be  accomplished  by  al- 
cohol lamps,  or  a  row  of  candles. 

If  two  strips  of  different  metals  are  riveted  together,  and 
heated,  the  unequal  expansion  of  the  metals  will  cause  the  double 
strip  to  bend.  Leon  and  copper  are  good  selections. 

Illustrations  of  effects  of  expansion  of  solids  may  be  found  if 
pupils  are  set  to  looking  out  for  them. 


87 


Currents  in   Air  and  Water, 


Immediate  application  of  the  facts  learned  in  the  last  lesso&e 
on  heat  in  its  expansion  of  both  liquids  and  gases  may  be  made 
in  the  study  of  currents  formed  in  air  and  in  water  by  heating 
them.  It  will  be  clear  to  pupils  that  if  a  portion  of  air  is 
heated  and  by  this  means  is  expanded  it  will  be  lighter  than 
the  surrounding  cooler  air  in  which  it  rests.  The  same,  of  course,  is 
true  for  water.  Such  a  heated  mass  of  air  will  begin  to  rise  being 
pushed  up  by  the  heavier  air  as  would  a  cork  in  water  by  the 
heavier  water. 

^N  There  would  be,  then,  two  movements  in  the  air, 

the  upward  movement  of  the  heated  air,  and  the 
movement  of  the  surrounding  cooler  air  toward  the 
space  below  the  upward  moving  portion.  These 
would  be  the  beginning  movements  but  it  is  plain 
the  disturbances  of  air  thus  started  would  be  ex- 
tended  very  much.  The  movements  of  air  are 
"  termed  currents  of  air. 

Since  the  transparency  of  air  prevents  our  de- 
tecting currents  in  it,  some  means  must  be  sought  to 
make  its  movements  visible.  This  can  be  done  by 
FigW>*6.  Jm-  blackening  it  by  smoke.  For  such  purpose  a  sub- 
reanclndie flameut  stance  that  will  burn  continuously  with  smoke  but 
without  flame  is  desirable.  The  small  sticks  sold  by  the  Chinese 
called  by  the  children  "punk"  will  answer  well  for  this.  Excellent 
"smoke  paper"  can  be  made  by  soaking  strips  of  blotting  paper 
or  carpet  paper  in  a  solution  of  saltpetre  and  then  drying  them. 

With  strips  of  lighted  smoke  paper  have  the  pupils  explore 
the  condition  of  the  air  about  a  candle-flame  or  about  a  lighted 
lamp.  Currents  of  air  will  be  seen  rising  above  the  flame  and. 
others  approaching  it  from  the  sides.  Care  must  be  taken  to  have 
the  air  as  still  as  possible  and  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  heat 


88 


NATURE   STUDY 


from  the  lighted  strip  produces  currents  in  the  air.  This  makes 
it  necessary  to  manage  the  smoke  paper  so  that  the  smoke  at 
some  distance  from  the  burning  part  is  allowed  to  fall  in  the  way 
of  the  currents  to  be  tested.  The  condition  of  the  air  about  a 
stove,  a  radiator,  or  a  register  is  next  to  be  explored.  The  same 
tests  may.  be  applied  to  the  air  about  a  person  sitting  quietly  in  a 
room.  These  experiments  will  reveal  the  fact  that  in  a  closed 
room  where  all  else  is  quiet,  the  air  in  all  parts  is  in  constant  mo- 
tion, the  motion  being  caused  by  some  of  it  being  heated  more 
than  the  rest. 

Next  allow  the  pupils  to  open  the  windows  at  the  top  and  at 
the  bottom  and  find  out  at  which  points  the  air  is  entering  and  at 
which  it  is  escaping  from  the  room.  Various  combinations  of 
opening  and  closing  of  the  different  windows  may  be  studied  as 
well  as  the  conditious  with  doors  partially  or  wholly  open,  also  with 
other  openings  which  may  be  in  the  room.  These  experiences 
making  familiar  the  movements  of  air  and  their  cause  form  a 
good  basis  for  study  of  both  ventilation  of  rooms  and  of  means 
of  the  greater  movements  of  air  outside  in  thephenomenaof  winds. 


Fig.  57.    Ventilation  in  a  miniature  room. 

Beside  the  study  of  a  real  room  in  reference  to  its  ventilation, 
which  of  course  is  the  best  subject,  the  matter  can  be  further 


CURRENTS   IN    AIR    AND   WATER  89 

vividl;  illustrated  by  a  miniature  room  formed  of  a  soap  box  into 
the  sides  of  which  small  windows  are  cut.  Short  pieces  of  candles 
placed  on  the  bottom  may  be  used  as  the  sources  of  heat.  Tfcc 
top  of  the  box  is  covered  with  a  board,  or  better,  if  one  wishes  to 
watch  the  condition  of  the  candles,  with  a  sheet  of  glass.  The 
windows  are  closed  by  pasting  paper  over  them  and  opened  by 
tearing  it  away.  By  opening  and  closing  the  windows  in  different 
combinations  it  can  be  seen  under  what  arrangement  the  candles 
burn  best.  Good  ventilation  keeps  them  bright;  poor,  dims  them 
or  puts  them  out.  The  smoke  paper  shows  into  which  windows 
the  air  enters  and  from  which  it  escapes.  Some  of  the  pupils  may 
make  a  more  elaborate  miniature  house  into  which  ventilating 
flues  may  be  introduced  according  to  some  system  used  which 
they  may  have  seen  placed  in  some  building  during  its  construc- 
tion. 

To  show  how  a  heated  mass  of  air  may  reach  a  considerable 
height,  a  balloon  made  of  tissue  paper  filled  with  hot  air  serves 
excellently.  In  the  hot  air  balloon  we  have,  of  course,  a  defin- 
itely outlined  mass  of  heated  air  whose  movement  and  course  we 
may  actually  watch.  Such  a  balloon  can  often  be  purchased  at 
the  toy  counter,  but  one  made  by  the  school  children  has  more  of 
interest  in  it.  One  not  less  than  four  feet  in  diameter  will  give 
the  greatest  satisfaction.  The  mouth  must  be  pretty  wide  or  it 
will  catch  fire  in  its  swaying  about.  In  the  school  room  the  bal- 
loon may  be  filled  with  heated  air  by  holding  it  over  a  large  lamp. 
When  thus  filled  it  will  rise  slowly  to  the  ceiling  and  when  cooled 
will  gradually  sink  to  the  floor. 

Out  oi  doors  the  heat  for  filling  the  balloon  is  best  made  by 
building  a  fire  at  the  bottom  ol  a  joint  of  stovepipe  fixed  in  an 
upright  position.  This  will  be  tall  enough  to  prevent  the  flames 
catching  the  balloon.  By  this  means  sufficient  heat  is  furnished 
to  carry  the  balloon  up  but  a  moderate  distance.  To  send  it  up  a 
good  distance  a  piece  of  cotton  soaked  with  paraffin  suspended 


90 


NATURE  STUDY 


by  a  fine  wire  at  the  mouth  of  the  balloon  is  lighted.  In  a  town, 
or  in  the  country  during  the  dry  season,  this  should  not  be  at- 
tempted from  the  danger  of  fire. 

The  hot  air  balloon  showing  a  heated  mass 
of  air  rising  to  a  great  height  illustrates  vividly 
how  larger  masses  of  air  lying  next  the  ground, 
which  is  heated  by  the  rays  of  the  sun,  will 
become  heated  and  rise. 

The  cooler  air  comes  rushing  in  as  it  pushes 
the  hot  air  up.  The  balloon  may  be  made  to 
illustrate  this  last  point  also.  In  the  school 
room  when  the  balloon  is  well  filled  with  hot 
air,  quickly  turn  it  upside  down  and  observe 
the  sudden  rush  of  hot  air  up  out  of  its  mouth 
and  the  equally  sudden  crushing  together  of 
the  sides  of  the  balloon  made  by  the  cooler  air 
rushing  toward  it. 

Currents  in  Water. 

Fill  a  glass  flask  about  two-thirds  full  of 
water  into  which  there  has  been  sprinkled 
some  fine  chalk  dust  that  will  show  any  move- 
ments in  the  water.  Place  the  flame  of  a  can- 
dle or  alcohol  lamp  under  the  flask.  Immedi- 
ately currents  of  water  will  start  from  the 
bottom  to  the  top,  and  down  the  sides  to  the 
bottom.  As  these  are  caused  in  the  same  way  in  which  the  cur- 
rents in  the  air  take  place,  their  explanation  can  easily  be  arrived 
at.  If  a  glass  jar  of  water,  the  larger  the  better,  has  sprinkled 
over  its  surface  some  fine  dust  of  an  aniline  dye,  the  particles  of 
the  dye  as  they  sink  and  dissolve  make  delicate  colored  threads  in 
the  water.  By  heating  either  the  sides  or  bottom  of  the  jar  ever 
so  slightly  currents  are  formed  as  shown  in  the  swaying  of  the 
colored  threads. 


Fig.    58.    Ctments 
water. 


CURRENTS    IN    AIR    AND    WATER  9* 

Evaporation. 

A  lesson  on  evaporation  could  begin  as  follows:  On  a  sheet 
of  clean  glass  place  a  drop  each  of:  water,  gasoline,  alcohol  and 
glycerine  or  molasses,  and  have  the  children  watch  the  result 
The  gasoline  soon  disappears,  later  the  alcohol,  the  water  much 
more  slowly ,  while  the  glycerine  persists  indefinitely.  Questioning 
and  study  of  this  will  bring  out  clearly  the  fact  of  evaporation  be- 
fore the  class  and  something  of  its  nature  and  how  different  liquids 
behave  in  this  respect.  Place  a  few  drops  of  gasoline  at  the  bottom 
of  a  glass  tumbler  closed  with  a  covering.  The  gasoline  disap- 
pears from  the  bottom.  It  can  not  escape  and  thus  it  is  seen  that 
the  vapor  must  be  transparent  like  the  air  with  which  it  is  min- 
gled. A  lighted  match  placed  at  the  mouth  of  the  tumbler  proves 
the  presence  of  the  vapor  of  gasoline  by  the  slight  explosion  and 
burning. 

Bisulphide  of  carbon,  used  so  much  in  the  destruction  of  squir- 
rels, evaporates  readily,  gives  a  vapor  so  heavy  that  it  can  be 
poured  from  one  glass  to  another.  It  also  explodes  when  lighted 
in  a  glass. 

The  rate  of  evaporation  of  water  in  the  conditions  of  the 
school  room  may  be  observed  by  the  use  of  a  jar  of  water,  the 
height  of  the  water  being  noted  at  definite  intervals. 

With  a  few  crystals  of  iodine  placed  in  the  bottom  of  a  test 
tube  and  gently  heated  over  the  flame  of  a  lamp  a  beautiful  purple 
vapor  can  be  produced.  Crystals  of  iodine  may  be  obtained  at 
any  drugstore  and  this  experiment  is  excellent  as  giving  a  vapor 
that  can  be  seen,  one  that  is  very  heavy  and  can  be  poured  out. 
It  thus  by  its  different  appearance  makes  clearer  the  conception  of 
a  vapor.  It  is  also  an  example  of  a  solid  changing  to  a  vapor. 

That  the  process  of  evaporation  is  a  cooling  one,  that  it 
uses  up  heat,  can  be  shown  by  placing  a  bit  of  cloth  moistened 
with  water  on  the  bulb  of  a  thermometer  and  seeing  the  fall  of 
the  mercury  as  the  water  evaporates.  With  the  use  of  a  rapidly 


92  NATURE  STUDY 

evaporating  substance  like  gasoline  or  bisulphide  of  carbon  a  vely 
low  temperature  can  be  obtained.  Drops  of  these  on  the  hand 
produce  a  marked  cooling  effect  as  they  evaporate. 

Applications  of  the  facts  learned  about  evaporation  will 
readily  suggest  themselves  in  regard  to  the  drying  up  of  the 
ground  after  a  rain,  the  filling  of  the  air  with  moisture  from  the 
sea,  lake  and  rivers. 

Boiling. 

The  study  of  boiling  may  well  follow  that  of  evaporation. 
For  this  purpose  the  glass  flask  which  has  already  been  used  is 
excellent  as  it  allows  the  phenomenon  to  be  seen.  Fill  the  flask 
two-thirds  with  water  and  use  an  alcohol  lamp,  as  considerable 
heat  is  needed.  Have  the  whole  process  watched  very  carefully. 
The  following  points  are  to  be  successfully  made  out:  first,  the 
currents  of  the  water  from  the  heating,  then  the  formation  of  bub- 
bles on  the  sides  of  the  flask.  These  are  bubbles  of  air  which  have 
been  dissolved  in  the  water  which  the  heat  expands.  They  will 
rise  to  the  top  and  disappear.  They  have  nothing  to  do  with 
boiling.  Later  some  bubbles  will  form  just  over  the  flame.  These 
will  rise  and  disappear  within  the  liquid,  or  only  reach  the  top  as 
very  much  smaller  than  when  starting.  These  are  bubbles  of 
real  steam,  but  as  the  water  is  not  yet  well  heated  throughout, 
they  wholly  or  partially  condense  in  the  cooler  water  as  they  rise. 
Their  collapse  makes  a  tinkling  noise  in  a  glass  flask.  Many  of 
them  sounding  together  make  the  singing  noise  preceding  the 
actual  boiling.  In  a  short  time  the  water  is  so  well  heated  that 
the  bubbles  of  steam  reach  the  top  in  full  size  and  push  out  the 
air.  The  steam  now  pours  out  at  the  top  where  reaching  the  cool 
air  it  condenses  into  a  white  cloud.  This  usually  is  called  the 
steam,  but  it  consists  of  minute  particles  of  water  condensed  from 
the  steam.  The  steam  is  the  transparent  vapor  over  the  water  in. 
the  flask. 

Clouds,  fogs  and  the  white  masses  which  arise  from  steam 


CURRENTS   IN   AIR   AND   WATER  93 

engines  are  composed  in  like  manner  of  fine  particles  of  condensed 
vapor  of  water. 

There  are  many  points  of  difficulty  in  this  with  the  children, 
from  former  notions  picked  up  here  and  there.  It  is  hard  to  un- 
derstand that  steam  is  invisible,  as  are  many  of  the  vapors  in  the 
preceding  lessons  (of  gasoline,  ether,  etc.).  But  these  very  diffi- 
culties give  opportunities  for  questions,  which  they  discuss  with 
each  other,  for  the  settling  of  which  they  may  devise  experiments. 
Do  not  be  in  too  great  a  hurry  to  have  it  all  taught.  We  may  re- 
member that  what  we  wish  of  our  material  is,  that  it  may  give 
just  those  questions  which  it  is  possible  for  the  children  to  work 
on.  We  should  give  them  a  chance  to  work  at  these  questions 
when  we  find  them.  For  those  pupils  who  are  ready  for  it,  the 
thermometer  may  be  used,  and  the  gradual  rise  of  temperature 
observed  until  the  water  boils,  when  it  will  be  seen  that  it  stands 
At  212  degrees  Fahrenheit,  whether  in  the  boiling  water,  or  in  the 
steam  just  above  it  (not  in  the  fog  formed  outside).  Alcohol  may 
be  used  to  show  that  other  liquids  have  a  lower  boiling  point 

Condensation. 

The  phenomenon  of  condensation  will  constantly  come  up  in 
the  foregoing  experiments  and  is,  of  course,  to  be  noted.  The 
iodine  vapor  condenses  in  crystals  on  the  cool  sides  of  the  test 
tube,  or  if  poured  on  a  cool  piece  of  glass.  A  lump  of  camphor 
heated  in  a  test  tube  in  the  same  way  will  evaporate  and  condense 
on  the  sides  of  the  tube.  Many  experiments  may  be  devised  to 
further  illustrate  the  results  of  evaporation  and  condensation  of 
water.  It  must  be  seen  that  such  high  degrees  of  heat  as  for  boil- 
ing is  not  needed  for  evaporation. 

A  glass  vessel,  partly  filled  with  water,  and  the  mouth  closed, 
will  show  water  constantly  on  its  inner  surface,  coming  from 
condensing  the  vapor  arising  from  the  water. 

The   condensation  of  water  on  the  cold  surface  of  a  plate  of 


94  NATURE   STUDY 

glass  exposed  to  the  breath,  or  to  the  surface  of  the  skin,  or  the 
under  surface  of  a  leaf,  or  over  the  flame  of  a  lamp  or  candle,  will 
show  that  there  is  vapor  of  water  coming  from  all  these  sources. 

Water  may  be  distilled  from  a  flask,  by  connecting  it  by  a 
tube  to  another  vessel.  The  water  boiled  in  the  flask  will  pass  as 
steam  into  the  tube,  which  is  kept  cool  by  moistening  it.  From 
the  tube  the  water  drops  into  a  receiving  vessel. 

It  may  be  said,  in  passing,  that  it  is  now  taught  that  in  the 
formation  of  fog  and  clouds,  each  particle  of  water  of  the  fog  or 
cloud  has  condensed  upon  a  particle  of  dust  in  the  air,  and  if 
there  were  no  particles  of  dust  there  could  be  no  fog,  clouds  or 
rain.  By  "dust"  is  meant  any  small  object  floating  in  the  air, 
such  as  go  to  make  up  what  we  commonly  speak  of  as  dust  and 
smoke. 

The  application  and  illustration  of  the  above  lessons  will  occur 
to  edch  one. 


SOLUTION  AND   CRYSTALLIZATION  95 

Solution  and  Crystallization. 

The  solvent  aclion  of  water  is  such  an  important  agent  in  the 
world  of  nature,  both  the  living  and  non-living,  that  it  becomes  a 
good  subject  for  nature  study  work. 

The  substances  which  plants  take  from  the  soil  must  be  in  a 
state  of  solution.  The  various  forms  of  the  foods  that  animals 
use  must  be  reduced  to  a  liquid  form  to  be  absorbed  and  they  are 
in  the  blood  in  solution.  The  solution  of  one  or  more  of  the 
ingredients  of  a  rock  which  act  as  a  cement  to  hold  the  rest 
together,  allows  the  rock  to  fall  to  pieces  and  to  become  soil.  The 
solution  of  certain  substances  from  the  soil  permits  them  to  be 
carried  great  distances  to  be  deposited  as  minerals  in  veins  or  in 
masses  of  crystals,  or,  as  in  salt,  in  great  salt  lakes  or  in  beds  of 
salt.  In  some  situations  immense  quantities  of  rock  are  entirely 
dissolved  out  and  carried  away,  as  in  the  caves  in  limestone  strata, 
of  which  the  Mammoth  and  Wyandotte  Caves  are  notable  examples. 
The  beautiful  cave  formations  are  the  result  of  regaining  dissolved 
substances  from  their  solutions.  Most  of  the  wonderful  things  to 
be  seen  in  the  Yellowstone  Park  are  the  result  of  solution  and  the 
regaining  of  substances  from  solution.  Thus  by  solution  and  a  re- 
gaining of  substances  from  solution  the  character  of  the  crust  of 
the  earth  may  be  constantly  undergoing  changes. 

To  illustrate  the  facts  of  solution  have  the  pupils  make  solu- 
tions of  some  common  substances  such  as  table  salt,  sal  ammoniac, 
alum,  sugar,  copper  sulphate  and  bichromate  of  potash.  This 
selection  contains  substances  of  different  colors  and  all  readily 
obtainable.  They  all  make  clear  solutions.  Have  comparisons 
made  with  attempts  to  dissolve  powdered  sulphur  or  powdered 
chalk,  which  will  not  dissolve  in  water. 

Have  the  pupils  by  experimenting  learn  that  some  substances 
like  sal  ammoniac,  dissolve  readily  in  water,  the  water  taking  in 
a  large  amount,  while  others,  like  bichromate  of  potash,  dissolve 


96 


NATURE   STUDY 


much  less  readily,  the  water  taking  up  but  a  small  amount  of  the 
substance.  There  are  other  liquids  such  as  the  acids  and  alkalis 
which  will  dissolve  substances  which  water  will  not  dissolve, 
but  the  solvent  power  of  water  is  sufficient  for  illustration 
of  the  facts  of  solution, and  it  is  water  with  which  we  have  the  most 
'to  do.  Test-tubes  are  the  most  satisfactory  vessels  in  which  to 
make  the  solutions,  but  bottles  or  drinking  glasses  will  answer 
very  well. 

After  making  solutions  we  may  follow  with  lessons  on  the 
regaining  of  the  dissolved  substances  from  the  solutions.  That 
is  done,  of  course,  by  evaporating  the  water  which  leaves  the  sub- 
stance in  solution  behind.  This  is  most  rapidly  done  by  heating 
the  water  to  boiling,  when  it  quickly  passes  away.  All  the  sub- 
stances above  suggested  should  be  regained  from  their  solu- 
tions. Sugar  dissolved  in  water  exists  in  beets,  in  sugar-cane  or 
in  the  sap  of  maple  trees.  The  juices  are  extracted  and  '  'boiled 

down,"  that  is,  the  water  is 
evaporated  away  and  molasses 
or  sugar  is  left. 

When  a  substance  is  re- 
gained irom  solution  by  the 
rapid  process  of  boiling  it  is 
left  behind  generally  in  the 
form  of  a  fine  powder  of  very 
minute  crystals.  If,  however, 
we  alJow  the  evaporation  to 
go  on  slowly,  as  in  an  open 
vessel  in  the  temperature  of 
the  school-room,  then  the 
dissolved  substance  will  form 
into  large,  beautiful  crystals. 

Fi*.  59.    Apparatus  for  obtaining  crystals     If  StrinSS  °r  slender  Stlcks  are 

on  strings.  suspended    in  the   liquid  the 


SOLUTION   AND   CRYSTALLIZATION 


97 


crystal  forming  on  these  may  be  easily  lifted  out  without  breaking. 
A  very  instructive  and  interesting  method  of  forming  crystals 
is  that  of  smearing  a  solution  of  a  substance  over  the  surface  of  a 
clean  sheet  of  glass.  As  the  water  evaporates  the  crystals  may 


Fi£.60.    Sal  ammoniac  crystallizing  on  a  sheet  of  glass. 

be  seen  to  fomi  over  the  surface  of  the  glass.     If  the  formation 
of  the  crystals  be  oberved  by  means  of  a  hand  lens  or  under  a  low 


98  NATURE  STUDY 

power  of  the  microscope,  the  crystals  will  be  seen  to  shoot 
rapidly  across  the  field.  Sal  ammoniac  is  excellent  for  this 
experiment. 

Indications  have  already  been  made  of  the  possible  application 
of  these  facts.  In  nature  the  water  dissolves  certain  substances 
from  the  soil  or  rocks  which  are  carried  to  greater  or  less  distances 
and  in  the  new  situations  by  evaporation  the  substances  take  the 
form  of  crystals,  of  quartz,  limestone  crystals,  and  the  various 
other  beautiful  crystals  and  gems  found  in  the  earth's  crust.  In 
making  solutions  of  all  those  substances  which  produce  the  crys- 
tals in  the  rocks,  water  is  aided  by  other  substances  mixed  with 
it,  such  as  carbonic  acid  and  other  acids  and  alkalis. 

To  show  that  water  always  dissolves  something  from  the  soil, 
soak  a  jar  of  earth  a  day  or  so  in  distilled  or  rain  water.  Filter 
off  the  water  and  evaporate  it  in  a  clean  vessel  and  when  all  the 
water  has  disappeared  the  vessel  will  be  coated  with  a  thin  crust 
of  the  substances  which  were  dissolved  in  the  water.  For  com- 
parison boil  down  in  the  same  way  an  equal  amount  of  distilled 
or  rain  water  and  no  crust  will  be  found  to  remain.  The  inside 
of  a  tea-kettle  long  in  use  becomes  coated  with  a  thick  crust  of  the 
substances  dissolved  in  the  water  used,  which  are  left  behind  by 
the  evaporation  of  a  large  amount  of  water  from  the  kettle. 

In  the  lessons  on  the  foods  of  plants  it  was  shown  that  car- 
bonic acid  and  water  are  the  main  foods,  but  in  addition  the  plants 
obtain  other  substances  from  the  soil.  These  come  into  the  plant 
dissolved  in  water.  In  burning  a  plant  in  open  air  those  parts 
made  out  of  the  carbonic  acicl  and  water  disappear  in  gases,  the 
product  of  the  burning.  There  is  left  behind  some  ashes.  These 
ashes  represent  mainly  what  the  plant  had  received  from  the  soil 
dissolved  in  water.  While  this  is  proportionally  small  in  amount 
it  contains  important  and  essential  elements  of  the  plant's  food. 
Thus  it  is  seen  that  water  is  not  only  itself  food  for  plants,  but  it 


SOLUTION   AND   CRYSTALLIZATION  99 

,  also  acts  as   the  medium   by  which  other  important  foods  are 
brought  into  the  plant's  body. 

The  Soil. 

The  facts  brought  out  in  the  lessons  immediately  preceding 
may  be  made  to  introduce  a  more  careful  study  of  soils.  The 
general  structure  of  the  soil,  and  the  different  kinds  of  soils 
may  be  studied;  also  the  relation  of  these  to  growing  roots 
and  percolating  water. 

In  general,  soil  may  be  said  to  be  made  up  of  clay,  sand, 
gravel  and  vegetable  or  animal  remains.  All  of  these  may  be 
present,  and  in  different  soils  in  varying  proportions,  or  only  one 
or  two  of  these  may  be  in  soil  from  a  particular  locality. 

Clay  consists  of  very  fine  particles  only ;  and  when  alone,  it 
makes  a  compact,  stiff,  heavy  soil  that  is  hard  to  work  with  farm- 
ing tools. 

Sand  is  composed  of  larger  particles,  and  when  alone,  makes 
a  loose,  light  soil,  easily  worked. 

Gravel  is  made  up  of  coarse  particles  and  stones  of  various 
sizes. 

Secure  a  portion  of  soil  from  any  source,  and  have  the  pupils 
separate  the  sand  from  the  clay  as  follows:  In  a  suitable  vessel, 
stir  the  soil  up  thoroly  with  water,  and  pour  off  the  muddy  water 
into  another  vessel.  By  repeated  washings  all  the  muddy  parts 
(which  are  the  clay)  are  separated  from  the  sand  and  gravel.  These, 
if  both  are  present,  may  be  separated  by  a  fine  screen  (wire 
netting).  The  vessel  containing  the  muddy  water  is  allowed  to 
stand,  until  the  soil  settles;  then  the  water  is  removed.  The  sedi- 
ment is  the  clay.  All  may  be  dried  and  the  proportional  amounts 
determined. 

Next  study  the  properties  of  clay  and  sand.  Placed  on  a 
filter  (a  funnel  with  a  cloth  or  filter  paper),  clay  retains  the  water, 
while  sand  allows  it  to  pass  rapidly  thru.  Note  the  effect  of  pack- 


100  NATURE   STUDY 

ing  each  firmly  before  water  is  poured  on.  Now  you  may  come  to 
questions  in  regard  to  the  percolation  or  retention  of  water  falling 
on  the  surface,  the  formation  of  underground  reservoirs,  of  springs, 
of  wells,  etc. 

Before  studying  how  water  rises  in  the  soil  from  moist  regions 
below,  some  experiments  in.  capillary  attraction  would  better  be 
taken  up. 

Capillary  Attraction. 

With  a  series  of  small  glass  tubes  standing  in  a  shallow  dish 
of  water,  observe  the  height  the  water  will  rise  in  each.  Two 
sheets  of  glass  brought  close  together  will  show  that  the  nearer 
they  approach,  the  higher  the  water  will  rise.  A  sponge,  a  cloth, 
a  lump  of  sugar,  a  piece  of  bread,  or  new  brick  may  be  used  to 
further  illustrate  capillary  attraction. 

Arrange  lamp-chimneys  (or  other  large  glass  tubes)  one  filled 
with  gravel,  one  with  sand,  one  with  clay,  and  others  with  mixed 
parts,  or  with  any  soil  desired.  Place  them  in  a  shallow  vessel 
of  water,  and  observe  the  rising  of  the  water  in  each. 

In  California  the  rains  in  the  winter  sink  down  into  the  lower 
depths  of  the  soil,  and  in  the  summer  with  no  rain,  the  plants 
must  depend  upon  this  water  which  rises  by  capillary  attraction 
to  the  roots  of  the  plants. 

The  reason  given  for  cultivating  the  orchards  in  the  summer 
is  to  break  up  into  a  loose  mass  the  upper  surface,  and  thus  in 
this  layer  destroy  the  conditions  good  for  capillary  attraction, 
which,  if  good,  would  allow  the  water  to  rise  to  the  upper  surface  and 
be  evaporated  by  the  sun  and  thus  lost.  The  cultivated  layer  of 
soil  acts  as  a  covering  retarding  evaporation.  To  be  a  good  cover- 
ing it  should  be  stirred  often  with  the  cultivator,  and  not  allowed 
to  pack  down  close  and  thus  establish  good  capillary  connection 
with  the  surface. 


SOLUTION   AND   CRYSTALLIZATION  >'-  '- 

For  study  of  how  roots  act  in  different  kinds  of  soils  use  the 
glass  frames  used  for  seed-planting.  Pack  the  clay  well. 

What  gives  the  dark  shades  of  color  to  the  soil?  Where  a  ditch 
or  other  cut  in  the  surface  of  the  soil  shows  a  section,  note  that 
the  upper  part  is  of  a  darker  shade  than  the  lower;  sometimes  it 
is  quite  black.  Take  a  portion  of  such  soil,  and  in  a  crucible  (a  big 
spoon  will  answer)  in  an  open  fire  burn  the  soil  thoroly.  The 
dark  color  will  disappear.  It  was  due  to  partially  decomposed 
vegetable  (rarely  animal)  remains,  that  is,  of  roots,  stems,  leaves, 
etc. ,  and  the  fire  has  burned  this  organic  matter  away.  This  dark 
layer  is  sometimes  called  loam,  while  the  brighter  colored  soil 
beneath  is  called  the  subsoil. 

Experiments  With  Ice. 
FROST. 

The  method  of  making  ice-cream  has  already  taught  most 
children  that  salt  and  ice  make  a  freezing  mixture.  To  show  by 
its  means  the  formation  of  frost,  fill  a  tin  cup,  or  other  similar 
metal  vessel,  with  a  mixture  of  salt  and  pulverized  ice.  Stir  the 
mixture.  Soon  the  sides  of  the  vessel  will  be  covered  over  with 
moisture  condensed  from  the  air.  As  the  vessel  further  cools,  this 
moisture  is  frozen,  and  the  vessel  becomes  covered  with  a  coating 
of  frost.  Press  the  tips  of  the  fingers  firmly  against  the  frosted  area 
until  the  small  space  thus  covered  is  melted.  Remove  the  fingers 
and  watch  the  formation  of  the  frost  crystals  as  the  film  of  water 
freezes. 

The  temperature  of  melting  or  forming  ice  is  32°  F.  This 
can  be  determined  by  the  thermometer  in  a  vessel  of  melting  ice 
or  in  a  vessel  in  which  water  is  made  to  freeze.  The  latter  can  be 
accomplished  b}'  surrounding  a  small  vessel  of  water  with  the  ice 
and  salt  mixture.  As  long  as  any  of  the  water  remains  unfrozen, 
it  does  not  sink  below  32°. 


tO2  NATURE   STUDY 

Why  does  ice  float  ?  Of  course  former  work  lias  shown 
It  is  because  that,  bulk  for  bulk,  it  is  lighter  than  water,  that  is,  when 
water  freezes,  it  expands.  Fill  a  small  bottle  with  water  and  place 
it  in  a  freezing  mixture,  keeping  it  there  until  its  contents  are 
frozen  hard.  The  bottle  will  be  broken  by  the  expanding  ice. 
This  also  illustrates  the  action  of  freezing  water  in  breaking  up 
rocks,  a  very  active  disintegrating  agent  in  cold  countries,  also  in 
high  mountains,  as  in  the  Sierra  of  California,  etc. 

An  experiment  showing  that  a  solution  of  salt  and  water 
requires  a  lower  freezing  temperature  can  be  performed.  Have 
the  pupils  show  that  when  the  solution  of  salt  freezes,  the  ice 
separates  the  salt  out  from  itself,  the  ice  being  fresh. 

These  experiments  may  be  much  varied;  their  application  to 
geographical  phenomena  are  obvious.  For  other  freezing  mix- 
tures see  some  work  on  Physics.  How  is  artificial  ice  manufactured? 


About  Spiders. 

Spiders  offer  certain  disadvantages  and  many  advantages  in 
their  use  as  objects  of  nature  study.  The  fear  which  they  inspire 
in  both  children  and  teachers  is  a  disadvantage;  their  actual  capa- 
city for  making  slight  wounds  by  biting  is  a  disadvantage  of  more 
importance,  in  that  it  cannot  be  quite  so  readily  overcome.  The 
abundance,  variety,  wide  distribution,  and  interesting  habits  of 
spiders  and  the  ease  with  which  they  may  be  kept  alive  and 
observed  in  captivity  are  preponderating  advantages.  A  word  as 
to  the  biting  and  poisoning  capacity  of  spiders.  The  bite  of  no  one 
of  the  common  small  spiders  of  house  and  field  and  garden  should 
cause  any  anxiety;  if  there  is  no  anxiety  there  will  be  no  trouble. 
The  bite  of  the  tarantula  and  large  running  spiders  may  cause 
some  pain.  But  there  is  absolutely  no  necessity  of  being  bitten 
at  all  in  studyiug  spiders.  I  have  never  been  bitten  by  a  spider 
and  I  have  studied  them,  as  much,  at  least,  as  the  nature  study 
teacher  is  asked  to  in  this  lesson. 

Spiders  should  be  studied  both  in  the  schoolroom  and  out  of 
doors.  The  suggested  work  is  divided  into  schoolroom  work  and 
field  work.  The  getting  acquainted  with  the  spider's  body  and 
some  of  its  feeding  habits  and  even  some  of  the  spinning  can  be 
done  in  the  schoolroom.  The  rearing  of  spiders  from  the  eggs, 
and  the  observation  of  the  habits  and  growth  of  the  spiderlings 
should  also  be  done  in  the  schoolroom.  But  the  study  of  the 
homes  of  spiders,  the  different  kinds  of  webs,  and  the  general 
habits  of  the  different  common  kinds  of  spiders,  as  well  as  the 
manner  of  web-building,  must,  most  of  it,  be  done  in  the  field  or 
garden  or  along  the  roadside;  in  a  word,  out  of  doors. 

Identifying  and  Collecting. 

Spiders  are  too  familiar  to  require  any  special  diagnosis  for 
identification.  There  are,  however,  many  kinds  of  spiders,  and 


164   c't  i ..:  / 


NATURE   STUDY 


direction  is  given  later  in  these  notes  for  the  identification  (mostly 
by  habits)  of  some  of  these  kinds.  Collecting  spiders  is  not  diffi- 
cult nor  does  it  carry  the  collector  far  afield.  The  collector 
should  provide  himself  with  a  number  of  empty  pill  boxes,  cap 
boxes,  or  other  similarly  small,  paper,  wooden  or  tin  boxes  with 
well  fitting  cover.  Each  of  these  boxes  will  serve  as  collecting 
tool  for  one  spider,  and  as  cage  to  keep  it  in  until  the  schoolroom 
is  reached  again.  Search  for  spiders  in  or  near  their  webs,  in 
the  corollas  of  flowers,  on  the  bark  of  trees,  under  stones  and 
sticks  on  the  ground,  and  (for  tarantulas  and  other  spiders  with 
tubular  nests  in  the  ground),  in  their  nests  in  the  ground.  Spiders 

living  off  the  ground, 
i.  e.  on  webs,  flowers, 
trees,  etc.,  are  very 
prone  to  diop  quickly 
to  the  ground  when 
disturbed.  Take  ad- 
vantage of  this  and  be 
ready  to  catch  the  fall- 
ing spider  in  a  pill 
box,  quickly  clapping 
the  lid  on.  Use  the 
pill  box  and  lid  as 
catching  equipment. 
You  will  soon  get  ex- 
pert in  the  work. 
Small  spiders,  espe- 
cially those  in  webs 
or  flower  cups  can  be 
caught  with  perfect 
impunity  inthe 
hands.  But  there  is  always  danger  of  crushing  the  soft  body  of 
the  creature,  or  pulling  off  a  leg  or  two  in  handling.  Trust 


Fig.  61.    Catching  a  spider. 


SPIDERS  105 

chiefly  to  manipulation  of  the  box  and  lid.  There  need  be  no 
holes  in  the  pill  box  for  the  admission  of  air  for  the  captive 
inside.  The  boxes  are  by  no  means  air  tight.  The  silken 
egg-sacs  or  cocoons  of  spiders,  if  you  know  them,  (and  some  of 
them  are  described  and  figured  later  in  these  notes),  may  also  be 
collected,  and  the  young  spiders  reared  in  the  schoolroom.  The 
spiderlings  will  be  of  special  interest  to  the  children, and  some 
thoroly  interesting  experiments  may  be  made  with  them. 

For  the  first  lesson  of  spiders  to  be  given  in  the  schoolroom 
collect  a  number  of  common  house  spiders  and  ground  spiders. 
The  house  spiders  may  be  found  especially  readily  in  wood  sheds, 
stables,  or  other  out  buildings,  and  in  attics.  The  ground  spiders 
may  be  found  under  stones.  Keep  some  of  both  kinds  of  spiders 
alive  in  covered  glass  jars  in  the  schoolroom  and  kill  some  by 
means  of  chloroform.  In  the  jars  with  the  live  ones  put  a  num- 
ber of  small  live  insects  to  serve  as  food  for  the  spiders. 


Observing  and  Questioning. 

SCHOOLROOM  WORK.  Have  the  children  watch  the  live 
spiders.  Notice  their  behavior  with  regard  to  the  insects  put  in 
for  food.  Do  the  spiders  catch  the  insects  ?  Is  there  any  dif- 
ference in  the  behavior  of  the  two  kinds  of  spiders,  the  smaller 
house  spider  and  the  larger  ground  spiders  ?  What  do  the  spiders 
do  with  their  captured  prey  ?  Do  they  spin  silk  about  their 
bodies  ?  Do  both  kinds  of  spiders  do  this  ?  How  do  spiders  eat 
their  prey  ?  Do  they  eat  the  whole  body  of  the  captured  insect  ? 
They  simply  suck  out  the  body  juices,  casting  aside  the  flaccid 
skin.  If  the  spiders  spin  silk  around  their  prey  from  what  part 
of  the  spider's  body  does  the  silk  come  ?  The  silk  issues  from 
small  papillae  or  finger-like  processes  situated  at  the  posterior  tip 
of  the  body.  Do  the  spiders  spin  silk  except  around  the  bodies 
of  their  prey  ?  Whenever  the  house  spiders  run  they  leave  behind 


io6 


NATURE    STUDY 


a  silken  thread  which  is  at- 
tached to  the  bottom  or  sides 
of  the  glass  jar.  Take  out 
from  the  jar  one  of  the  house 
spiders  on  the  end  of  a  pencil. 
The  spider  will  drop  from  the 
pencil  not  free,  but  attached 
to  a  delicate  almost  invisible 
silken  thread  which  issues 
from  the  posterior  tip  of  the 
body  (fig.  62).  By  quickly 
lifting  the  pencil  before  the 
spider  reaches  the  table  or 
floor  the  presence  of  the  hold- 


Fig.  63.    A  grouud  spider. 


Fig.  62.    A  spider  falling. 

ing  thread  may  be  demonstrated. 
After  the  children  have  ob- 
served the  live  spiders,  give  them 
dead  spiders  to  examine.  These 
dead  spiders  should  be  of  the 
larger  sort,  the  ground  spiders 
(fig.  63),  in  order  that  the  parts 
of  the  body  referred  to  in  the 
following  notes  can  be  readily 
made  out.  How  many  legs  has 
a  spider?  There  are  four  pairs  of 
true  legs;  a  pair  of  shorter  pro- 
cesses which  look, at  first  glance, 
like  legs,  and  which  are  situated 
in  front  of  the  first  pair  of  true 
legs,  are  feelers  or  papi.  They 


SPIDERS  107 

are  always  directed  forward,  it  may  readily  be  seen  that  they  are 
not  used  in  walking.  Into  how  many  parts  is  the  body  divided  ? 
To  which  part  are  all  the  legs  attached  ?  Have  the  children  look 
for  the  eyes  of  the  spider.  Where  are  they  and  how  many  are 
there  ?  The  eyes  of  spiders  are  shining  little  black  spots  situated 
on  the  upper  frontal  part  of  the  anterior  half  of  the  body,  (that  part 
which  bears  the  legs,  and  is  the  head  and  thorax  of  the  spider 
joined  together).  The  eyes  vary  in  number  and  arrangement  in 
different  kinds  of  spiders,  and  vary  in  size  on  the  individual. 
The  common  ground  or  running  spiders  have  eight  eyes  (which 
is  the  more  usual  number  among  spiders)  and  they  are  arranged 
as  shown  in  figure  64.  Have  the  children  discover  which 
of  the  eyes  are  larger  than  the  others.  Have  the  children 
look  for  the  jaws  (mandibles)  of  the  spider.  With  a  pin  press 
the  jaws  apart  laterally  and  examine  one  of  them  carefully. 
Each  jaw  (fig.  64)  is  composed  of  a  firm,  smooth, 
sharp,  pointed  tip  and  a  thicker  hairy  basal  part. 
The  tip  is  the  fang,  which  is  thrust  into  the  prey 
and  the  basal  part  contains  the  poison  sac.  From 
the  poison  sac  the  poison  runs  thru  the  fang  and 

out   of  it  thru  a  tiny  hole   near  the   point.       Ex- 
Fig.  64.   Front 
amine  now  the  spinning  organs.     At   the  posterior  of  head  of  spider 

tip  of  the  body  may  be   seen  a  few  small  finger-like  andWm!ndibiess 
projections,    the    spinnerets   (fig.     65); 
(some  of  these  are.so  small  and  so  much 
concealed  by  the  others  that  it  will  be 
difficult   for  the   children   to   determine 
exactly    how   many   there    are).     From 
these  comes  the  silk  when  the  spider  is 
1  'spinning. ' '     Each  of  these  little  finger- 
like  spinnerets  bears   on  its  surface  many  very  small  papillae,  the 
spinning  tubes.     These  cannot  be  seen  with  the  unaided  eye,  but 


108  NATURE   STUDY 

if  the  teacher  has  a  microscope,  and  will 
cut  off  a  spinneret  and  mount  it  in  glyce- 
rine on  a  glass  slip,  the  numerous  tiny  spin- 
ning tubes  may  be  readily  seen  (fig.  66). 
When  the  spider  is  spinning  i.  e.  when  it  is 
producing  a  silken  line,  a  slender  thread 
issues  from  each  of  the  spinning  tubes  on 
each  spinneret.  All  of  these  fine  threads 
from  the  many  spinning  tubes  unite  to  form  Fig.  GG.  Tip  of  a 

neret      showing    spinning 

the  one  strong  line  which  we  see.  tubes. 

FIELD  WORK.  To  find  and  get  acquainted  with  the  appear- 
ance and  habits  of  some  of  the  commoner  different  kinds  of  spiders, 
the  teacher  should  take  the  class  afield.  It  will  not  be  necessary  to 
wander  far;  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  school  house,  especially 
if  there  be  flowers  and  shrubbery  in  the  yard,  will  contain  nearly 
all  the  kinds  of  spiders  written  of  in  these  notes.  For  the  sake 
of  teaching  the  teacher  we  shall  find  these  spiders  in  a  very  regu- 
lar sort  of  way;  a  way  which  will  not  be  readily  repeated  in  the 
field.  But  because  the  teacher  can  get  his  knowledge  of  the  few 
kinds  of  spiders  we  wish  to  study  much  more  readily  and  cer- 
tainly if  some  orderly  sequence  in  the  observation  of  them  is  fol- 
lowed, a  sequence  in  finding  the  spiders  is  adopted. 

It  is  a  familiar  tact,  I  hope,  that  some  spiders  spin  webs 
for  catching  their  prey,  while  some  do  not,  but  trust  to  pursuit  by 
running  or  leaping.  At  any  rate  such  is  the  fact  and  it  may  be 
our  basis  of  primary  classification  of  spiders  by  habits.  The 
house  spiders  with  their  cob-webs,  the  field  spiders  with  their 
silken  sheets  among  the  grasses,  and  the  garden  spiders  with  their 
geometrically  regular  orbs  hung  in  the  shrubbery,  are  spiders 
which  belong  to  the  web-weaving  group.  The  black,  swiftly  run- 
ning spiders  that  lurk  under  stones,  the  fierce-eyed  little  black 
and  red  fellows  hiding  on  the  bark  of  trees,  and  the  daintily 
colored  crab-like  one  lying  quietly  in  flower  cups,  are  spiders 


SPIDERS 


109 


which  belong  to  the  non-web-weaving  group.  We  shall  attend, 
in  our  consideration  of  the  different  kinds,  first  to  the  spiders 
which  do  not  spin  webs  for  catching  prey. 

Under  stones  or  lurking  in  half  concealment  elsewhere  on  the 
ground  may  readily  be  found  certain  blackish  rather  hairy  spiders 
mostly  of  rather  large  size.  These  are  the  Running  Spiders,  and 
they  catch  their  prey  by  swift  running.  Their  legs  are  long,  the 

hindmost  pair  be- 
ing the  longest.  Some 
of  these  spiders  have 
the  body,  exclusive  of 
legs,  an  inch  or  even 
more  in  length.  One 
of  these  large  spiders 

may  be  found,  perhaps,  dragging  after  it  a  dirty  white  silken 
ball  (fig.  67).  This  ball  is  the  silken  egg-sac  which  is  strongly 
attached  to  the  spinnerets  of  the  female.  The  egg-sac  is  carried 
about  by  the  spider  until  the  spiderlings  hatch.  They  issue  from 
the  egg-sac  and  climb  onto  the  back  of  the  mother  spider,  and 
are  thus  further  carried  and  protected  by  the  mother  until  they 
are  able  to  care  for  themselves. 

Upon  fences,  the  sides  of  out  buildings,  on  the  bark  of  trees, 
or  fallen  logs,  may  be  found  certain  small  robust,  short-legged 
spiders  which  move  chiefly  by  sudden  leaps.  These  are  the 
Jumping  Spiders  (fig.  68).  They  are 
usually  black,  with  red  or  other  strikingly 
colored  markings,  and  two  of  the  eight 
shining  black  eyes  are  much  larger  and 
more  conspicuous  than  the  others;  much 
larger,  indeed,  than  the  eyes  of  any  other 
spiders  of  equal  size,  and  they  give  the 
Jumping  Spiders  a  peculiarly  threatening 
appearance.  These  spiders  can  walk  side- 


110  NATURE   STUDY 

wise  or  backwards  with  facility,  but  are  readily  distinguished  by 
their  leaping  and  their  big  eyes  from  the  true  sidewise  moving  or 
crab  spiders  described  in  the  next  paragraph. 

In  cracks  and  crevices  offences  and  bark  and  on  plants,  may 
be  found  certain  short,  broad,  flattish,  usually  greyish  spiders, 
which  can  run  sidewise  or  backward  more  readily  than  forward. 
These  are  known  as  Crab  Spiders  (  fig.  69  ). 
Some  of  them  lie  in  wait  for  their  prey  in 
flower  cups,  and  these  are  usually  white  and 
parti-colored  so  as  to  harmonize  with  the 
bright  colors  of  the  corolla.  They  are 
rendered  inconspicuous  by  this  sort  of  color 
mimicry,  and  small  insects  alight  unspect- 
ingly  within  reach  of  the  waiting  spider. 

Fig,  69.    A  Crab  Spider.  , 

The  front  two  pairs  of  legs  of  these  spiders 
are  longer  than  the  other  two  pairs,  and  '  'so  bent  that  the  spider 
can  use  them  when  in  a  narrow  crack." 

The  running  spiders,  jumping  spiders  and  crab  spiders  are 
the  most  easily  found  and  easily  recognized  of  the  spiders  which 
do  not  spin  webs  to  catch  prey.  But  there  are  other  groups  of 
spiders  characterized  by  this  habit;  among  them  those  giant 
spiders,  the  California  Tarantulas  or  Mygales,  and  the  trapdoor 
spiders.  The  tarantulas  and  trapdoor  spiders  live  in  cylindrical 
burrows  in  the  ground,  and  they  do  their  hunting  chiefly  at  night. 
They  are  not,  thus,  very  commonly  found,  altho  they  are  abund- 
ant, in  California.  Perhaps  the  most  certain  way  to  obtain  a  live 
specimen  of  the  tarantula  is  to  dig  it  out  of  its  burrow.  The  bur- 
row can  be  recognized,  with  some  certainty,  by  the  fact  that  they 
are  usually  thinly  lined  internally  with  silk.  They  are  open  at 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  are  about  an  inch  or  an  Inch 
and  a  half  in  diameter.  The  live  tarantula  can  be  kept  in  a  glass 
jar  or  wooden  box  in  the  bottom  of  which  several  inches  of  soil 
have  been  placed.  It  may  be  that  the  tarantula  will  build  a 


SPIDERS 


III 


nest  (burrow)  while  in  captiv- 
ity, tho  it  probably  will  not. 
It  should  be  provided  with 
insects  or  with  raw  meat  for 
food.  Notice  its  hairy  body, 
v  its  great  fangs,  its  long  strong 
4  legs.  The  trap-door  spiders 
are  of  great  interest  because  of 
the  curious  nests  they  make. 
The  burrow  or  vertical  tunnel 
in  the  ground  (fig.  70)  is 
closed  at  the  surface  by  a 
hinged  lid,  a  veritable  trap- 
door, composed  of  soil  and 
silk.  The  inner  surface  of  the 
door  is  quite  covered  with 
silk,  while  the  outer  (upper) 
surface  is  skilfully  covered 
with  soil  or  soil  and  bits  of 

Fig.  70.    Nest  of  trap  door  spider.  leaves,  Sticks,  Or  mOSS,  SO  as  to 

correspond  exactly  with  the  character  of  the  ground,  covering  im- 
mediately surrounding  the  mouth  of  the  burrow.  As  the  door  fits 
exactly,  lying,  when  closed,  perfectly  even  with  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  showing  hardly  a  visible  crack  or  line  at  its  point  of 
meeting  with  the  surface  of  the  ground,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to 
find  the  trap-door  spider's  nests.  But  by  being  constantly  on  the 
watch  for  them,  a  happy  chance  may  discover  one.  The  trap-door 
nests  may  be  specially  looked  for  in  the  woods,  and  in  uncultivated 
ground. 

Two  nests  in  the  entomological  collection  of  Stanford  Univer- 
sity were  found  in  a  bare  and  well-trod  path,  which  was  in  daily 
use.  If  a  nest  is  found  it  should  be  carefully  dug  up,  and  removed 
to  the-school-room.  Here  the  interesting  details  of  its  construct- 


112  «  NATURE   STUDY 

ion  can  be  examined  at  leisure.  The  silken  walls  and  the  silk 
used  in  making  the  trap-door  show  that  these  spiders  possess  the 
power  of  spinning  silk,  even  tho  they  do  not  spin  webs  for  catch- 
ing their  prey. 

The  webs  or  snares  of  spiders  present  a  great  variety  in  form 
and  type  of  construction.  The  different  webs  made  by  the  indi- 
viduals of  any  one  species  of  spiders  are  always  alike  however; 
indeed,  each  family  of  web- weaving  spiders  has  its  own  peculiar 
type-plan  of  web  construction  and  as  we  could  distinguish  various 
families  of  non-web  weaving  spiders  by  their  habits  of  locomotion 
so,  we  can  distinguish  the  various  families  of  web  weaving  spiders 
by  the  character  of  the  webs. 

Most  familiar  to  us  probably,  are  the  "cobwebs"  of  the  neg. 
lected  corners  and  byways  of  the  house  and  outbuildings.  The 
family  of  cobweb  weavers  is  a  large  one,  and  its  species  are  not 
restricted  to  an  indoor  habitat,  but  many  spin  their  loose,  irregu- 
lar webs  in  bushes.  The  web  is  a  tangled  maze  of  silken  threads 
mostly  in  the  form  of  a  flat  or  curved  sheet  of  silk,  on  the  under 
side  of  which  the  spider  stands  or  runs  back  downward.  Some- 
times the  owner  of  the  web  has  a  silken  nest  in  a  crack  near  the 
web,  and  there  is  sometimes  a  short  silken  tube  leading  from  the 
web  to  the  nest.  The  spiders  themselves  are  usually  small  and 
very  slim-legged. 

Have  the  children  examine  a  cobweb  carefully.  Note  the 
irregular  unsymmetrical  character  of  the  web.  Can  the  general 
sheet-like  form  of  the  web  be  made  out  ?  Are  there  vertical 
threads  running  to  the  web  from  above  ?  Is  the  web  sticky,  i.  e. 
are  the  threads  of  the  web  sticky  ?  Are  all  the  threads  of  the 
web  sticky  ?  (  see  description  of  orb- webs  ).  Are  there  any 
remains  of  insects  in  it  ?  Throw  a  house  fly  into  the  web,  and  if 
the  spider  comes  to  it,  watch  carefully  all  the  movements  of  the 
spider,  Does  it  run  out  on  the  upper  or  under  surface  of  the  web  ? 


SPIDERS  113 

Does  it  swath  the  fly's  body  with   silk  ?     Does  it  carry  the  fly  to 
its  nest  or  to  another  part  of  the  web  to  eat  it  ? 

A  grade  higher  in  point  of  symmetry  of  construction  are  the 
snares    of  the  funnel- web  weavers.     These  webs  (fig.   71)  are 


Fig.  71,     A  fuunel-web  (after  Emerton). 

spun  in  the  grass  of  meadows,  pastures,  gardens  and  roadsides, 
and  because  of  their  lowly  and  obscure  situation  they  do  not 
usually  appear  to  be  very  abundant;  they  are,  in  fact,  the  most 
abundant  of  all  webs.  We  are  often  surprised  to  find,  some  dewy 
morning,  the  grass  nearly  covered  with  glistening  spider  webs. 
This  abundance  of  webs  is  revealed  to  us  by  the  tiny  drops  of 
water,  which  clinging  to  the  silken  threads,  reflect  the  sun's  rays 
and  make  the  otherwise  almost  invisible  webs,  very  conspicuous. 
It  is  desirable  to  choose  a  dewy  morning  or  the  first  hour 
after  the  lifting  of  a  heavy  fog  for  spider  web  hunting.  The  webs 
are  not  only  easily  found  then  but  they  are  then  specially  beauti- 
ful. The  funnel-webs  are  horizontal  concave  silken  sheets  sup- 
ported in  the  grass  by  strong  silken  lines  or  cables  attaching 
to  the  grass  stems  and  blades.  They  have  at  one  side  a  fun- 
nel shaped  tube  running  downwards  and  opening  near  the  ground. 
The  spider  lies  in  hiding  in  this  tube,  and  from  it  runs  out  upon 


NATURE  STUDY 


the  upper  surface  of  the  web  to  seize  its  prey,  or  runs  away  when 
necessary  by  issuing  from  the  lower  end  of  the  tube,  and  escap- 
ing unseen  on 
the  ground 
among  the  grass 
roots.  The  fun- 
nel web  weaving 
spiders  are  long 
legged,  usually 
brownish  spiders 
very  often  of 
considerable  size 
and  with  one  of 
the  pairs  of  spin- 
nerets unusually 
long.  Have  the 
children  see  how 
the  web  is  sus- 
pended by  stout 
supporting  lines. 
Note  the  funnel- 
shaped  tube  with  its  upper  and  lower  openings.  Find  a  tube 
with  the  spider  in  it.  Touch  the  web  slightly  with  a  pencil  point, 
trying  to  induce  the  spider  to  come  out  upon  the  web.  Observe 
its  manner  of  escape. 

A  great  advance  in  degree  of  symmetry  and  elaboration  of 
design  is  shown  by  the  round  webs  or  orb-webs  (fig.  72).  These 
are  the  most  interesting  as  well  as  the  most  beautiful  of  spider's 
snares,  and  they  furnish  the  nature  study  teacher  with  a  fascina- 
ting subject  of  observation.  The  orb- webs  may  be  found  sus- 
pended between  the  branches  of  shrubby  plants  or  between  the 
bushes  themselves,  in  fences,  in  open  door  ways  or  wherever  in 
the  garden  a  convenient  frame  work  presents  itself.  They  are 


Fig.  72.    The  orb-web  of  Argiope  (after  McCook). 


SPIDERS  I I 5 

characterized  by  their  circular  outline  within  which  are  disposed 
numerous  radii  and  a  series  of  concentric  circular  or  spiral  threads. 
The  circular  snare  is  usually  placed  within  an  irregular  triangle, 
or  quadrangle,  or  polygon,  which  is  held  in  shape  and  position  by 
stout  stay  lines  extending  and  fastening  to  the  adjacent  branches 
or  fence  rails  or  door  frames  or  whatever  serves  as  frame  work  for 
the  snare.  The  webs  vary  greatly  in  size,  the  largest  being 
sometimes  a  foot  and  a  half  to  two  feet  in  diameter.  The  spiders 

which  spin  these  webs  are 
called  garden  spiders  or 
orb- web  weavers,  and  most 
of  them  are  highly  colored 
and  have  a  nearly  spheri- 
cal abdomen  (  fig.  73  ) . 
They  may  be  found  "hang- 
ing  head  downwards  usu- 
ally near  the  center  of  the 
net;  others  have  a  retreat 
near  one  edge  of  the  net  in 
which  they  hang  back 
downwards.  While  resting 
Fig.  73.  Argiope,  an  orb-weaver.  in  these  retreats  they  keep 

hold  of  some  of  the  lines  leading  from  the  net  so  that  they  can 
instantly  detect  any  jar  caused  by  an  entrapped  insect" 

Find  one  of  these  orb-webs  in  good  condition,  i.  e.  not  torn 
and  ragged  but  new  and  complete.  Examine  it  and  note  the 
regularity  of  its  construction.  Trace  the  stay-lines  to  their 
attachments;  note  the  shape  of  the  outer  polygon;  note  the  "spiral 
zone,"  i.  e.  that  part  of  the  snare  filled  with  lines  laid  down  in 
apparently  concentric  circles;  note  that  these  apparently  concen- 
tric circles  are  not  separate  circles  but  are  spiral  and  that  the  line 
composing  it  is  continuous;  between  the  outer  polygon  and  the 
spiral  zone  there  is  a  region  crossed  by  the  radii  but  without  other 


Il6  NATURE   STUDY 

lines,  this  is  called  the  "outer  free  zone;"  between  the  spiral  zone 
and  the  center  of  the  snare  there  is  another  zone  free  from  spiral 
or  circular  lines,  or  with  these  lines  very  far  apart,  this  is  called 
the  "inner  free  zone*';  the  central  part  or  central  zone  of  the  snare 
has  a  close  spiral  in  it,  and  in  this  central  zone  the  spider  if  it  has 
no  side  retreat  usually  rests.  Touch  one  of  the  radii  or  one  of  the 
foundation  lines  with  a  pencil  point;  touch  the  spiral  with  a  pen- 
cil; a  difference  in  the  character  of  the  two  kinds  of  lines  is  at  once 
manifest.  The  spiral  thread  is  "sticky,"  the  radii  and  founda- 
tion lines  are  not  sticky.  The  web  is  made  of  two  kinds  of  silk. 
If  a  bit  of  the  spiral  line  be  examined  under  a  magnifier  it  will 
be  seen  that  ranged  along  the  silken  thread,  like  beads  on  a 
string,  are  many  tiny  globules  or  drops.  These  drops  are  a  sticky, 
viscous  sort  of  silk,  which  does  not  dry  and  harden  as  the  usual 
spider  silk  does.  These  sticky  drops  make  the  spiral  line  much 
more  effective  as  a  snare.  Throw  an  insect  into  the  web  and 
observe  the  behavior  of  web  and  spider. 

If  possible,  observe  the  spinning  of  an  orb-web.  Tear  partly 
away  an  already  made  web,  and  if  the  spider  is  not  too  badly 
frightened,  she  will  probably  rebuild  the  web.  Parts  of  this 
work  of  rebuilding,  at  least,  can  probably  be  observed.  The 
spider  works  in  a  regular  way,  putting  in  first  the  foundation  and 
radial  lines,  and  then  the  spiral  lines.  Two  sets  of  spiral  lines 
are  put  in;  a  first  set,  which  is  put  in  from  the  center  outwards, 
is  not  viscid,  and  serves  as  a  scaffolding  upon  which  the  spider 
works  when  putting  in  the  -second  set.  The  second  set  is  viscid 
and  is  put  in  from  the  outer  part  of  the  web  toward  the  center. 
The  temporary  spiral  or  scaffolding  is  torn  out  as  the  work  of 
putting  in  the  viscid  permanent  spiral  progresses.  The  work  ot 
building  the  web  includes  a  great  deal  of  interesting  behavior  on 
the  part  of  the  spider,  the  delicate  manipulation  of  the  viscid 
lines,  and  the  almost  geometrically  accurate  disposition  of  the 
lines  composing  the  snare,  combining  to  render  the  whole  per- 
formance little  sort  of  marvelous. 


SPIDERS.  117 

There  are  other  kinds  of  webs  which  other  kinds  of  spiders 
spin.  Indeed,  among  the  orb- weavers  alone,  there  is  great  variety 
in  the  character  of  the  webs;  some  orb-webs  for  example,  lack  a 
sector  of  the  circle,  the  web  being  otherwise  constructed 
on  the  regular  orb-web  plan;  others  are  composed  of  perhaps  less 
than  one-half  a  circle,  although  still  with  radii,  and  with  con- 
centric arcs  of  circles  in  place  of  complete  circles  in  the  spiral 
zone.  Certain  kinds  of  spiders  spin  a  peculiar  broad  line  or 
rather  band  of  curling  silk,  which  leads  from  the  snare  to  the 


Fig.  74.     The  triangle  spider  (Hyptiotes)  and  its  snare. 

side  retreat  of  the  spider.  Or  they  make  out  of  this  band  of 
curled  silk  a  central  zone  not  composed  of  a  spiral  line  but  of  a 
closed  oval  or  circular  shield.  A  certain  very  small  spider 
spins  a  triangular  web  (fig.  74),  from  which  a  main  stay  line  runs 
upon  which  the  spider — triangle  spider  it  is  called — rests  with  a 
loop  of  the  stay  line  held  between  the  fore  and  hind  legs.  When 
an  insect  alights  upon  the  snare  the  spider  looses  the  hold  of  the 


Il8  NATURE   STUDY 

hind  legs  on  the  stayline  and  the  web  springs  suddenly,  further 
entangling  the  prey.  For  these  and  other  kinds  of  webs  the 
teacher  and  class  may  search.  There  is  an  unlimited  and  always 
interesting  field  of  observation  in  the  study  of  spiders'  webs,  and 
it  is  a  field  always  open  to  the  nature  study  class. 

Finally,  there  is  one  other  peculiar  phenomenon!  which  may 
be  observed  in  connection  with  spiders  and  spiders'  silk.  On 
some  bright  warm  days,  there  may  be  noticed  many  "spider 
webs"  or  long  threads  of  spiders'  silk,  floating  in  the  air.  Some 
of  these  threads  are  floating  at  considerable  heights.  Careful 
observation  will  show  that  not  only  are  "spider  webs"  floating, 
but  attached  to  many  of  them  are  small  spiders  which  are  thus 
sailing  or  "  ballooning"  thru  the  air.  These  are  called  balloon- 
ing or  aeronautic  spiders.  Examine  carefully  the  top  of  fence 
posts  or  other  exposed  raised  points  and  you  may  be  fortunate 
enough  to  discover  one  of  these  spiders  about  to  make  an  ascen- 
sion. The  small  spider  will  be  standing  with  its  legs  close 
together  and  straight,  the  body  being  thus  lifted  as  high  as  may 
be,  and  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  pointing  upward.  From  the 
spinnerets  (at  the  tip  of  the  abdomen)  are  issuing  lines  floating 
freely.  These  line  are  gradually  spun  out  (being  really  drawn  out 
by  the  pull  of  the  wind)  until  they  become  so  long  that  the  wind 
bears  them  off  with  the  spider  attached  to  them.  Spiders 
may  make  long  journeys  in  this  manner,  and  get  themselves 
widely  dispersed  from  an  original  habitat.  These  ballooning 
spiders  are  mostly  young,  and  hence  small  individuals  of  various 
species;  but  some  adult  spiders  of  small  size  are  also  aeronauts. 

From  this  brief  account  of  some  of  the  habits  and  manners 
of  spiders  it  is  hoped  that  the  nature  study  teacher  may  obtain 
suggestions  for  numerous  lessons.  The  observations  can  be  made 
as  opportunity  offers;  field  work  should  be  attempted  only  on 
bright  sunny  days  when  insects  are  all  astir,  and  the  spiders  are 
busy.  Schoolroom  work  can  be  more  definitely  controlled;  the 


SPIDERS  119 

live  spiders  can  be  watched;  the  egg- sacs  examined  to  see  if  the 
young  are  hatching,  and  the  spiderlings  experimented  with  in  all 
the  ways  that  the  teacher's  ingenuity  can  suggest. 


120 

Plants  Without  Flowers. 


Ferns. 

Altho  ferns  are  very  common  and  very  attractive  plants, 
both  as  wild  and  as  conservatory  and  house  plants,  yet  their  life 
history  is  not  generally  known.  The  whole  of  even  the  brie 
account  which  immediately  follows  could  hardly  be  worked  out 
in  the  nature  study  class,  but  it  is  given  for  the  teacher  who  may 
not  have  been  a  student  in  botany.  Having  traced  it  once,  the 
judgment  of  the  teacher  may  be  relied  upon  to  select  the  main 
features  which  can  be  used  in  this  class. 

There  are  two  stages  in  the  life  of  the  plant,  during  one  of 
which  it  lives  as  a  very  small  inconspicuous  plant  whose  very 
existence  is  not  known  to  great  numbers  of  admirers  of  ferns. 
The  fern  plant  as  we  see  it  growing  bears  spores.  A  spore  when 
deposited  in  the  proper  conditions  sprouts  and  grows  into  a  mi- 
nute plant  which  looks  as  little  like  a  fern  as  possible.  This  little 
plant  lives  an  independent  existence  and  is  known  as  a  prothallium. 
In  the  course  of  its  life,  it  produces  on  its  under  surface  organs 
which  correspond  to  stamens  and  pistils  of  flowering  plants  (male 
and  female  organs).  As  in  the  higher  plants  pollen  grains  fertil- 
ize the  ovules,  so  here  cells  from  the  male  organs  called  anthe- 
ridia  fertilize  a  cell  in  the  organ  corresponding  to  the  pistil  called 
an  archegonium.  Then -as  a  seed  is  formed  in  an  ovary  of  a  pistil, 
so  here  the  fertilized  cell  forms  by  growth  a  germ  of  a  minute  fern 
which  soon  grows  up  from  the  prothallium.  This  tiny  fern  con- 
tinues its  growth,  the  prothallium  in  the  meantime  dying,  until 
it  attains  the  characteristic  size  and  form  of  the  species  to  which  it 
belongs.  Thus  a  spore  from  a  fern  plant  produces  a  prothallium, 
and  then  the  prothallium  produces  a  fern  like  the  one  from  which 
the  spore  comes.  These  two  forms  or  stages,  or  generations,  as 
they  are  called,  alternating  thus,  are  spoken  of  in  biology  as  an 
alternation  of  generations. 


PLANTS   WITHOUT   FLOWERS 


121 


The  class  may  take  up 
the  following  concerning 
the  fern.  Any  commor 
fern  will  answer  for  study 
See  the  whole  plant,  with 
leaves(fronds),undergrounu 
stem  or  root  stalk,  and  roots 
coming  off  from  this.  Ex- 
amine the  leaves  and  find 
on  the  backs  of  some  the 
spore-bearing  organs.  These 
are  arranged  differently  in 
different  ferns.  In  many,  as 
shown  in  figure  75,  they  are 
in  round  dots.  Examine 
with  a  hand  lens  these  dots, 
and  each  dot  will  be  found  to 
consist  of  a  bunch  of  little 
roundish  knobs,  each  knob 
born  on  a  small  curved 
stalk.  Figure  76  shows  one 
of  these  stalks  with  the 
surmounting  knob  highly 
magnified.  The  little  knobs 
are  capsules  which  con- 
tain spores  (fig.  76).  The 
stalk  with  the  capsule  is 
called  a  sporangium. 
When  the  spores  are  ripe 
.  .  the  stalk  straightens  out, 

Fig.  75.    A  leai  of  a  fern  showing  the  underside 

with  numerous  dots  which  are  made  up  of  the    the  Capsule  breaks  Open  and 
spore-bearing  organs. 

the  spores  fall  out. 
By  sowing  the  spores  under  proper  conditions  and  caring  for 


122 


NATURE   STUDY 


them,  prothallia  can 
be  raised  in  the  school- 
room and  ferns  grown 
from  the  prothallia. 
This  will  prove  very 
interesting  and  in- 
structive. 

The  spores  may  be 
'collected  by  placing 
the  spore-b  earing 
leaves  on  sheets  of 
paper,  and  letting 
the  leaves  dry,  when 
the  spores  will  be  dis- 
charged, covering  the 
paper  as  a  fine,  brown 

,  T/,  ,.  Fie.  76.    A  single    spore-bearing  organ  of  a  fern  highly 

pOWder.     If  the  Spores  magnified.  Taken  from  one  of  the  dots  shown  in  fig.  75.  At 
«  . ,         S  is  a  spore  escaping. 

are  sown  on  fine,rather 

closely-packed  earth,  and  kept  moist,  and  covered  with  glass 
BO  as  to  prevent  evaporation,  a  fine  green,  moss-like  growth 
will  make  its  appearance  in  a  week  or  two,  and  by  the  end 
of  five  or  six  weeks,  the  little  flat,  heart-shaped  plants  spoken  of 
before  as  the  first  stage  will  appear.  They  are  of  a  dark  green 
color,  and  are  the  prothallia.  These  prothallia  are  attached  to 
the  ground  by  fine  root-hairs.  Very  soon  we  may  find  growing  from 
the  under  side  of  some  of  the  larger  of  these  little  plants  the  fern 
as  we  know  it.  It  is  attached  to  the  ground  as  well  as  to  the  pro- 
thallium  (fig.  78).  As  the  plant  grows,  the  prothallium  dies,  leav- 
ing the  fern  as  an  independent  plant,  which  afterwards  bears 
the  spores. 

The  reproductive  organs  are  on  the  under-side  of  the  prothal- 
lium as  shown  in  figure  77.  These  can  be  readily  made  out  with  a 
hand  lens  if  the  pupils  are  old  enough  to  appreciate  this  work. 


PLANTS  WITHOUT   FLOWERS 


123 


Fig.  77.  A  prothallium  of  a  fern  magnified.  The  small  figure  at  the 
top  shows  the  natural  size.  Both  figures  show  the  underside  of  the 
plant.  The  archegonia  are  shown  near  the  notch,  below  are  the 
antheridia,  the  round  dots,  and  numerous  hairs  acting  as  roots. 

Lichens. 

The  lessons  on  the  mushrooms  will  prepare  the  class   for 
another   group  of  fungi,  the   lichens.     They   are  very  common 


124 


NATURE  STUDY 


everywhere  and  altho  they  are  at  first 
puzzling,  the  children  become  very  much 
interested  in  them. 

They  are  the  plants  which  often  form 
drab  or  gray-colored  patches  on  the  bark 
of  trees  or  on  the  surface  of  stones.  There 
are  many  forms  —  some  make  fringes  and 
fuzzy  coverings  on  fence  boards  or  on 
trunks  and  limbs  of  trees.  One  strange 
form  is  the  so-called  "hanging  moss," 
which  grows  so  abundantly  in  California, 
hanging  in  long  festoons  from  the  oaks. 
(Not  the  "hanging  moss"  of  Florida). 
They  reproduce  by  means  of  spores,  borne 
oftentimes  in  colored  cup-shaped  surfaces. 
The  spore  surfaces  are  sometimes  carried 
upon  stalks,  thus  beiug  elevated  above 
the  plant  body.  In  some  forms  small 
portions  of  the  plant-body  become 
detached.  These  will  grow  into  a  new  plant. 

Their  method  of  attachment  to  bark  or  stone,  method  of 
growth,  and  method  of  bearing  the  spores  may  be  seen.  '  For 
older  classes,  by  the  use  of  the  microscope,  the  wonderful  bit  of 
natural  history  shown  in  the  relation  between  the  lichens  and  the 
bit  of  green  algae  on  which  they  are  parasites,  may  be  made  out. 

Mosses. 

Mosses  are  more  common  than  ferns  and  little  understood, 
except  by  botanists.  They  may  be  the  subjects  of  many  interest- 
ing lessons.  Many  of  the  facts  about  them  which  are  of  great 
interest  from  a  scientific  point  of  view,  are  difficult  to  make  out 
and  would  better  not  be  attempted  in  this  course.  Teachers  who 
wish  to  learn  of  them  are  referred  to  works  on  botany,  especi- 


Fig  78>  A  prothallus  of  a  fern 
w(FromsacS5.£  ernisgrow- 


PLANTS   WITHOUT   FLOWERS  125 

ally  with  regard  to  the  reproductive  parts.  The  following  account 
is  only  meant  to  refer  to  parts  which  can  easily  be  observed. 

There  is  a  great  number  of  forms  which  would  be  puzzling 
to  those  who  are  not  botanists.  Common  forms  may  be  found 
growing  in  moist  places  on  the  ground  or  on  the  trunks  or  limbs  of 
trees.  These  plants  consist  of  small  stems  clothed^with  minute 
green  leaves.  The  stems  are  fastened  to  the  ground  by  means  of 
thick  felt  or  hair-like  threads.  The  whole  plant  is  a  beautiful 
and  interesting  object  seen  under  the  simple  microscope.  A  simple 
leaf  under  higher  powers  shows  a  thin  plate  consisting  of  a  single 
layer  of  plant  cells.  The  green  grains  in  the  cells  are  chlorophyll 
bodies.  These  are  the  same  in  all  green  leaves. 

Those  pupils  who  are  ready  for  it,  may  be  taught  that  it  is 
by  means  of  these  bodies  that  the  plant  is  able  to  make  such 
substances  as  starch  out  of  carbonic  acid  and  water,  the  two 
great  food  substances  of  the  plant.  It  would  do  no  violence  to 
any  correct  pedagogical  principle  to  tell  any  one  who  can  see  the 
green  grains  that  by  means  of  them  the  plant  in  sunlight,  makes 
starch  out  of  carbonic  acid  and  water.  As  it  is  in  mosses,  so  it  is 
all  plants.  When  the  subject  of  the  use  of  chlorophyll  is  taken 
up,  the  moss  leaf  is  one  of  the  most  convenient  objects  in  which 
to  see  the  chlorophyll  well.  (See  topic,  ''The  Plant's  Food.") 

The  moss  reproduces  by  means  of  spores.  These  in  many 
common  forms  are  contained  in  a  little  vessel  on  the  lop  of  a 
slender  stalk  which  raises  it  above  the  general  bed  of  moss. 

The  spores  sown  in  moist  places  first  grow  into  minute  green 
threads  (protonema).  These,  in  time,  bear  minute  buds  which 
develop  into  the  moss  plants  as  we  generally  see  them. 

The  children  may  find  different  forms  of  mosses;  find  their 
spore-bearing  parts;  the  protonemal  stage  passing  into  the  adult 
plant.  Flower  pots  in  which  other  plants  are  growing,  if  kept 
moist,  often  have  all  of  these  stages. 

Note  to  the  teacher: — For  yourself,  you  will  find  it  a  matter 


126  NATURE   STUDY 

of  great  interest  to  learn  how  the  spores  are  formed,  altho  the 
subject  is  a  rather  difficult  one  to  make  clear  to  young  children. 
Reference  is  made  to  the  formation  of  the  male  and  female  plants, 
the  fertilization  of  the  oospore  by  the  antherozoids,  and  the 
development  of  the  sporogonium. 

The  Green  Scum  of  Ponds. 

In  the  many  excursions  made  by  the  pupils  the  ever  present 
green  scum  of  ponds  and  ditches  must  have  attracted  their  atten- 
tion and  have  been  the  source  of  many  questions. 

If  a  lesson  with  it  goes  no  further  than  to  show  that  this 
slimy  mass  really  is  made  up  of  a  number  of  very  definite  and 
beautiful  forms  of  plants  among  which  live  a  large  number  of 
interesting  animals,  it  will  have  accomplished  much  in  extending 
the  view  of  nature.  With  a  microscope  it  can  supply  a  never 
ending  train  of  beauties  and  wonders.  What  is  given  here  is  but 
the  merest  beginning  with  these  objects,  one  that  all  can  make. 

Have  some  one  bring  in  a  portion  of  such  scum.  Place  it  in 
a  vessel  of  water,  giving  it  plenty  of  room  to  spread  out  well. 
Take  up  a  very  small  portion  (too  great  a  portion  will  give  con- 
fusion only)  and  mount  it  in  water  on  a  glass  slip  with  a  cover 
glass.  Allow  the  children  to  see  it  well  and  make  out  some  of 
the  forms.  There  will  be  great  interest  on  the  part  of  the  child- 
ren, but  at  first  very  wrong  conceptions  of  what  is  seen. 

One  form  of  plant  is  very  likely  to  occur.  It  consists  of  a 
single,  long,  unbranched  thread.  Within  it  are  green  spiral  bands 
with  chlorophyll.  The  partitions  across  the  plant  are  the  ends  of 
plant  cells.  The  plant  consists  of  a  single  row  of  cells.  Those 
who  are  students  of  botany  will  recognize  the  plant  as 
Spirogyra,  of  which  there  are  at  least  forty  species  in  the  United 
States.  Of  course  the  children  will  demand  names  for  the  num- 
erous things  which  they  may  chance  to  see,  but  few  botanists  or 
zoologists  could  give  them  all.  A  frequent  examination  of  pond 


PLANTS   WITHOUT   FLOWERS  127 

scum  from  different  sources  will  allow  the  children  to  become 
famili&r  with  some  of  the  most  common  forms  which  will  repeat- 
edly occur.  The  names  of  many  of  these  may  be  ascertained  and 
supplied  in  time. 

DIATOMS. 

Diatoms  are  almost  always  present  in  the  above  described 
(preparations.  They  are  small  objects,  generally  brownish  in 
color,  often  tapering  at  each  end  like  a  canoe.  They  move  across 
the  field  like  small  boats.  There  are  many  other  shapes  than 
these  among  the  diatoms.  Diatoms  are  plants  having  delicate 
ehells  of  silica.  When  the  plant  dies,  the  shell  drops  to  the 
bottom  of  the  pond.  In  certain  places,  ponds  or  lakes  which 
have  been  the  homes  of  diatoms  for  ages  have  a  deposit  of  fine 
mud  at  the  bottom  made  up  largely  of  diatom  shells.  In  ancient 
geological  times  there  were  thus  formed  in  some  places  in  Cali- 
fornia and  in  other  countries,  deposits  making  thick  strata  of 
rock  composed  almost  wholly  of  diatom  shells. 

If  in  the  first  lesson  neither  Spirogyra  nor  diatoms  are  in  the 
material  observed,  equally  interesting  forms  will  be  seen. 


123 

Flowering  Plants. 

In  former  lessons  the  dispersal  of  seeds  of  flowering  plants 
and  also  their  germination  and  growth  were  taken  up.  When 
the  seeds  that  were  planted  have  become  of  considerable  size 
many  matters  of  interest  demand  attention.  Among  the  ques- 
tions which  may-be  studied  are:  What  are  the  foods  of  the  plants 
and  how  do  they  obtain  them?  What  are  the  uses  of  the  various 
parts  of  the  plant?  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  different  forms 
of  stems?  What  of  the  arrangement  of  the  leaves?  How  are 
the  seeds  formed? 

The  study  of  these  questions  with  the  plants  themselves  will 
suggest  many  other  questions  pertaining  to  the  contrivances  by 
which  each  kind  of  plant,  thru  leaf,  stem,  branch  and  root,  and 
the  various  parts  of  each,  is  adapted  to  its  particular  kind  of  life. 
Studying  a  plant  from  these  points  of  view  will  not  require  learn- 
ing the  names  of  the  parts  of  the  plant  except  where  there  is 
occasion  to  use  the  name,  nor  the  learning  of  the  technical 
names  of  the  forms  of  leaf,  stem  and  root,  which  are  used  very 
rarely  except  in  technical  descriptions  in  systematic  botany. 
Altho  these  have  in  the  past  formed  a  prominent  part  in  the  con- 
ventional courses  in  botany,  they  should  have  little  or  no  part  in 
Nature  Study  by  children. 

The  Plant's  Food. 

The  food  of  plants  consists  mainly  of  (i)  carbonic  acicZ,  obta:ned 
from  the  air, and  (2)  water  ^obtained  from  the  ground;  also  (3)  a  3r/iall 
amount  of  various  substances  dissolved  from  the  soil  by  tb^  water. 

To  show  that  plants  take  up  water  by  means  of  roots  and 
root-hairs,  dig  up  a  plant  and  carefully  wash  the  dirt  from  the 
roots,  harming  the  root  arid  root-hairs  as  little  as  possible.  Place 
the  root  in  a  bottle  or  flask,  allowing  the  stem  to  pass  thru  a  cork. 
The  cork  is  slit  and  placed  around  the  stem.  Thru  the  cork  also 
extends  one  end  of  a  glass  tube  bent  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a 


FLOWERING   PLANTS  1 29 

guage.  The  tube  is  filled  with  water.  Very  soon  the  water 
descends  in  the  tube  and  continues  to  do  so  rapidly,  showing  that 
the  plant  is  using  up  the  water.  The  cork  ought  to  be  covered 
with  paraffine  so  that  evaporation  from  that  source  can  not  take 
place. 

This  apparatus  may  be  balanced  on  a  pair  of  scales,  or  a  pot 
with  a  growing  plant  in  it  may  be  thus  balanced,  and  it  will  soon 
show  loss  of  weight.  (A  simple  and  effective  pair  of  scales  may 
be  made  by  the  children  of  a  rod  of  wood  eighteen  inches  long, 
strings  and  two  pieces  of  board  six  inches  square.)  To  show  that 
the  water  escapes  from  the  plant  by  the  leaves,  allow  the  leaves 
to  rest  on  the  polished  surface  of  a  cold  piece  of  glass  or  polished 
Bteel. 

If  this  plant,  or  a  plant  in  a  pot  is  inclosed  by  a  bell-jar  or 
glass  shade,  the  water  corning  from  the  plant  will  be  condensed 
on  the  sides  of  the  glass. 

To  trace  the  course  of  the  water  absorbed  by  the  roots,  place 
a  solution  of  some  aniline  dye  in  the  water  (eosin  is  good.)  The 
coloring  can  be  traced  in  the  stem,  if  translucent,  and  thru  the 
veins  of  the  leaves  after  some  hours  or  a  day. 

These  experiments  may  well  be  followed  by  an  examination 
of  the  epidermis  of  a  leaf  with  the  microscope  to  see  the  stomata, 
the  openings  thru  which  the  water  passes.  By  tearing  the  leaf 
crosswise  portions  of  the  thin  transparent  skin  which  covers  the 
leaf  can  be  obtained,  mounted  in  water,  and  the  outline  of  the 
epidermal  cells  may  be  seen.  Notice  also  the  curved  cells  bor- 
dering and  making  the  stomata. 

Thru  these  not  only  does  the  water  go  out,  but  the  oxygen 
sometimes  passes  out  and  the  carbonic  acid  passes  in  (sometimes 
oxygen  comes  in)..  Thus  it  is  seen  that  thru  the  root-hairs  the 
water  and  certain  substances  dissolved  in  water,  and  thru  the 
stomata  in  the  leaves  the  carbonic  acid  enter  as  food.  The 
water  passes  up  thru  fibers  in  the  root,  from  these  thru  fibers  in 


130  NATURE   STUDY 

the  newest  portion  of  wood  and  bark  of  the  stem,  and  from  these 
again  thru  the  fibers  of  the  veins  of  the  leaf.  Now  the  water  and 
carbonic  acid  are  together  in  the  green  part  of  the  leaf.  In  the 
presence  of  the  green  substance  of  the  leaf  called  chlorophyll,  by 
means  of  sunlight,  the  leaf  changes  the  water  and  carbonic  acid 
into  starch,  which  is  a  plant  substance  from  which  other  plant 
substances  are  made  by  the  plant.  The  starch  may  be  changed 
to  sugar,  this  in  solution  may  pass  over  the  fibrous  pathway  in 
the  veins  of  the  leaf  and  in  the  stem  to  serve  as  nutrition  for 
growing  parts  or  be  deposited  as  sugar  or  changed  to  starch  again 
and  stored  up  for  future  use. 

The  importance  of  the  leaves  and  the  meaning  of  their 
arrangement  on  the  stem  are  brought  out  by  these  facts.  The  leaf 
presents  great  surface  to  the  air  and  to  the  light.  They  are  arranged 
on  the  stem  in  such  a  way  that  they  are  well  presented  to  the 
light  and  at  the  same  time  shade  their  fellow  leaves  very  little  or 
none  at  all.  Gather  branches  of  various  plants  and  examine  the 
disposition  of  the  leaves  with  reference  to  this  fact.  Whole  plants, 
such  as  the  geranium,  begonia,  filarilla,  turnip,  and  in  fact  any 
plant  will  illustrate  well  how  the  leaves  are  arranged  on  the 
plant  to  occupy  spaces  unoccupied  by  other  leaves,  and  presenting 
their  upper  surfaces  to  the  light  without  shading  those  below. 
This  method  of  arrangement  of  leaves  sometimes  throws  them 
into  a  rosette,  compact  or  loose,  sometimes  into  a  mosaic.  The  live- 
forever  and  young  filarilla  are  examples  of  the  former,  while  cer- 
tain forms  of  ivy  and  of  maiden  hair  ferns  of  the  latter. 

Fruits. 

Lessons  with  the  various  common  fruits  may  with  profit  be 
given  thru  August  and  September.  These  may  be  adapted  to  all 
grades.  The  lessons  on  distribution  of  seeds  have  explained  the 
use  of  the  edible  parts  of  many  fruits.  It  may  be  shown  how 
cultivation  and  selection  have  changed  fruits  to  the  form  most 


FLOWERING   PLANTS  131 

desired  by  man,  sometimes  to  the  detriment  of  the  seeds  them- 
selves. The  lessons  .may  include  the  structure  of  some  of  the 
following  kinds  of  fruits.  Let  each  pupil  have  at  least  one  speci- 
men of  the  fruit  studied.  Have  Ijim  cut  into  it  and  examine 
carefully  all  its  parts  and  just  how  they  are  arranged  in  reference 
to  each  other. 

The  peach,  plum,  cherry,  apricot  and  raspberry.  (These  are 
called  by  the  botanists  drupes). 

Gooseberry,  orange,  grape.     (These  are  known  as  berries). 

The  apple-like  fruits. 

The  melons,  cucumber  and  squash. 

The  tomato. 

The  fig,  the  pod  fruits,  the  winged  fruits  (maple),  the  straw- 
berry. Any  kind  which  any  pupil  may  find,  either  wild  or  culti- 
vated, should  receive  attention. 

Ripening  of  Fruits. 

In  some  of  the  upper  grades  the  question  of  what  takes  place 
in  a  ripening  fruit  may  well  be  investigated.  It  has  just  been 
seen  how  the  leaves  in  the  presence  of  sunlight  make  starch  out 
of  carbonic  acid  and  water.  Further  it  was  shown  that  starch  in 
the  leaves  is  changed  to  sugar  or  into  some  other  soluable  substance, 
and  may  then  be  distributed  to  different  parts  of  the  plant  and 
changed  to  starch  again. 

The  fruits  serve  to  illustrate  some  of  these  changes.  A  few 
simple  experiments  can  be  performed  which  will  make  clearer 
these  facts.  A  good  test  for  the  presence  of  starch  is  needed.  A 
solution  of  iodine  is  used  for  a  test  for  starch.  A  solution  of  iodine 
gives  starch  a  blue  color  and  thus  proves  its  presence  even  where 
mixed  with  other  substances.  A  solution  of  iodine  is  made  by 
dissolving  a  few  crystals  of  iodine  in  a  solution  of  iodide  of  potas- 
sium. 

To  show  how  the  iodine  acts  on  starch,  a  drop  may  be  placed 


132  NATURE  STUDY 

on  a  little  powdered  starch,  or  in  water  in  which  starch  paste  has 
been  mixed.  It  shows  a  blue  color.  If  a  drop  of  iodine  is  placed 
on  a  fresh-cut  slice  of  a  potato  or  with  the  scrapings  from  the 
slice,  it  gives  the  same  color. 

If  a  potato  has  been  allowed  to  sprout  and  the  sprouts  grow 
until  the  potato  becomes  watery  and  shrunken,  it  will  not  give 
the  blue  color.  The  starch  has  disappeared. 

With  a  microscope  one  can  show  the  starch  grains  in  the 
cells  of  the  potato  by  examining  a  thin  slice.  This,  stained 
with  iodine,  will  show  the  starch  grains  blue.  In  the  sprouted 
potato,  the  cells  will  be  seen  empty  of  starch  grains. 

The  change  from  starch  to  sugar  may  be  shown  well  with 
barley  grains.  Crush  grains  of  barley  and  with  the  iodine  show 
that  they  contain  starch.  Sprout  other  barley  grains  by  keeping 
moist  and  warm.  When  just  beginning  to  sprout,  stop  the  pro- 
cess and  dry  thoroly  with  gentle  heat  (do  not  scorch);  these  grains 
will  be  quite  sweet  to  the  taste  showing  presence  of  sugar. 

In  many  fruits,  starch  is  first  formed  in  the  green  fruit  which 
is  changed  to  sugar  on  ripening.  A  green  apple  will  show  by 
iodine  the  presence  of  starch  in  abundance,  while  the  ripe  apple 
will  show  the  absence  of  starch  and  the  sweet  taste  shows  that 
sugar  is  present. 

It  may  be  taught  in  this  connection  that  the  digestion  of 
starch  in  the  human  body  by  the  saliva  and  by  the  pancreatic  juice 
is  a  process  exactly  similar  to  that  in  the  potato,  grains  and  fruit. 
In  the  plant,  the  starch  is  changed  to  sugar  by  a  substance  in 
the  plant's  juices,  and  in  the  body,  by  a  substance  in  saliva  or 
pancreatic  juice. 

In  the  plant,  the  sugar  is  food  for  growing  cells  in  the  sprout- 
ing tuber  or  grains;  in  the  body,  sugar  is  food  for  the  action  or 
growth  of  the  cells  of  the  body. 


FLOWERING  PLANTS.  133 

The  Pine  Tree, 

In  very  early  spring  the  pine  trees  in  the  neighborhood  may 
be  observed  with  interest.  The  growing  branches,  the  main  axis 
of  each,  the  terminal  bud  and  the  small  side  branches  containing 
the  young  needle  leaves  may  be  made  objects  of  observation.  The 
branches  which  become  flowers  may  be  noted.  The  one  kind 
furnishes  an  immense  amount  of  pollen,  the  other  constitutes  the 
young  cones.  In  the  one  see  just  how  the  pollen  grain  is  borne; 
in  the  other,  just  where  the  ovules  are  located,  that  is  just  at  the 
base  of  the  scales  making  up  the  cone.  In  the  older  cones,  find 
the  seeds.  These  have  developed  from  the  fertilized  ovules.  The 
ovules  must  receive  the  pollen  grains  before  they  can  develop  into 
seeds.  How  does  the  pollen  reach  them  ?  The  settling  of  this 
question  will  bring  out  the  advantage  in  producing  such  immense 
quantities  of  pollen.  It  insures  that  the  chance  currents  of  wind 
will  carry  the  pollen  to  the  young  cones. 

The  microscope  will  show  the  interesting  form  of  the  pollen 
grains,  and  hew,  by  sort  of  minute  wings,  they  are  better  carried 
by  the  wind.  The  yellow  dust  on  the  sidewalks  or  on  little  pools 
after  a  wind-storm  at  this  time  of  the  year  is  pine  pollen.  The 
microscope  will  prove  this. 

Having  seen  how  the  pollen-producing  flowers  (staminate) 
and  the  cones  (pistilate)  of  the  pines  are  arranged,the  same  organs 
in  the  redwoods,  cypress,  firs,  cedars,  and  whatever  cone-bearing 
plants  which  may  be  in  the  region  of  the  school,  may  be  observed. 
The  parts  of  these  organs  are  essentially  the  same,altho  the  size  and 
shape  of  the  cones  differ  greatly.  This,  of  course,  gives  an  excellent 
opportunity  for  an  exercise  in  making  comparisons  and  drawing 
conclusions. 

The  parts  bearing  the  pollen  and  the  cones  with  the  ovules 
were  referred  to  as  flowers.  While  they  are  essentially  flowers 
they  are  not  called  "true  flowers."  This  term  is  applied  to  those 
flowers  which  have  their  ovules  in  a  closed  case  as  in  the  lupine 


134  NATURE   STUDY 

and  poppy,  as  seen  in  other  lessons.  The  pine  and  all  cone- 
bearing  plants  have  their  ovules  lying  exposed  on.  the  scales  of 
the  cone.  However,  after  fertilization  of  the  ovules  the  scales  grow 
so  that  they  are  crowded  tightly  together  and  thus  remain  until  the 
seeds  are  ripe  and  ready  for  distribution.  In  this  way  they  are 
well  protected.  The  seeds  are  in  some  pines  two  years  in  ripen- 
ing. The  pupils  rnay  determine  this  point  for  the  conifers  to 
which  they  have  access. 


135 

Parasitic  Plants. 

In  the  lesson  on  the  plant's  food  only  those  plants  were 
referred  to  which  made  food  for  themselves  out  of  carbonic  acid 
and  water,  and  matters  dissolved  in  water.  Two  very  common 
plants  may  serve  as  examples  of  those  which  rob  other  plants  of 
nutrition  gathered  by  them,  the  Dodder  and  Mistletoe. 

Dodder. 

While  hunting  for  examples  illustrating  seed-distribution,  in 
July  to  September,  the  pupils  will  likely  come  across  a  curious 
parasitic  plant  known  as  Dodder.  As  it  illustrates  the  life  of  a 
plant  without  roots  or  leaves  using  those  of  other  plants,  it  makes 
an  instructive  lesson. 

The  dodder  occurs  as  slender  leafless  vines  twining  about  the 
stems  of  other  plants,  sending  into  their  leaves  and  stems  little  pro- 
cesses by  which  they  suck  the  juices  of  the  host,  which  supplies 
them  with  their  whole  nourishment.  This  parasite  relying  on  the 
leaves  and  roots  of  its  host  has  none  of  its  own;  the  leaves  may 
occur  as  the  merest  rudiments.  It  bears  flowers  and  these  form 
seeds.  The  seeds  germinate  in  the  ground.  Thus,  at  first,  the 
plant  has  a  root  which  serves  its  purpose  until  it  can  grow  up  and 
attach  itself  to  its  host,  when  it  discards  its  roots.  There  are  dif- 
ferent species  of  dodder.  One  very  common  one  in  the  coast 
marshes  forms  conspicuous  orange  patches  of  fine  tangled  vines. 
Another  is  of  pale  yellow  color  and  is  found  on  many  kinds  of 
plants  more  commonly  growing  in  low,  moist  situations,  altho 
found  sometimes  in  the  fields  and  hills.  These  plants  belong  to 
the  same  family  to  which  the  morning-glory  'belongs. 

Mistletoe. 

The  study  of  the  robber  plant,  dodder,  will  almost  surely 
suggest  to  many  pupils  the  question  of  the  life  of  the  Mistletoe* 


136  NATURE   STUDY 

This  is  very  common  and  specimens  are  readily  obtained,  and 
the  facts  of  its  life  ascertained.  Here  we  have  a  plant  that  is  not 
completely  parasitic  as  is  the  dodder.  Its  roots  penetrate  the 
limbs  of  the  tree  host  and  draw  nourishment  from  it.  But  it 
bears  leaves  which  take  food  from  the  air  as  do  the  leaves  of  other 
plants.  The  seeds  are  covered  with  a  sticky  substance  by  which 
they  adhere  to  the  bills  or  feet  of  birds  and  are  thus  carried  to 
the  limbs  of  trees.  The  most  conspicuous  species  in  California 
is  the  one  growing  on  oaks.  There  is  another  less  conspicuous 
one  with  smaller  leaves  growing  on  the  pines.  Have  the  pupils 
see  by  a  cut  section  how  the  attachment  of  the  plant  is  made 
to  the  host. 


137 

Eggs  of  Frogs,  Toads  and  Salamanders. 

Toads,  frogs  and  salamanders  (water  dogs,  mud-puppies) 
lay  their  eggs  in  water.  Here  the  eggs  hatch  out  into  tadpoles. 
In  the  tadpole  stage  they  breathe  by  means  of  gills,  at  least  in 
the  earlier  part  of  this  stage.  Later  they  gradually  develop 
lungs  and  finally  become  air  breathers.  The  toad  and  frog  tad- 
poles gradually  lose  their  tails  by  absorbing  them,  while  a 


Fig.  79.    The  tiger  salamander. 

salamander  tadpole's  tail  develops  to  a  considerable  size  and  is 
retained  thru  life  as  a  swimming  organ  to  be  used  when  the 
animal  goes  to  water.  One  of  the  most  common  salamanders  in 
California,  is  the  red-bellied  salamander  which  is  found  in  great 
numbers  in  the  ponds  and  streams  in  winter  during  the  egg  lay- 
ing season.  The  spotted  tiger  salamander,  fig.  79,  is  also  to  be 
found.  Any  of  the  salamanders  may  be  kept  in  a  box,  the  bot- 
tom of  which  is  covered  with  moist  earth  in  which  ferns  or  moss 
is  growing.  In  winter  the  red-bellied  salamander  does  well  in 
the  aquarium,  or  any  vessel  of  water.  It  should  be  well  fed  with 
earth  worms. 

The  eggs  of  toads,  frogs  and  salamanders  should  be  gathered 
and  placed  in  the  aquaria  and  their  development  watched.     The 


I38  NATURE  STUDY 

eggs  of  frogs  and  salamanders  are  in  masses  of  a  transparent 
jelly-like  substance  which  is  attached  to  sticks  on  plants  in  the 
water.  The  eggs  themselves  are  little  round  bodies  embedded  in 
the  jelly.  The  eggs  of  toads  are  in  strings  of  a  jelly-like  substance. 
These  may  be  obtained  during  the  winter  time.  Secure  some 
and  place  them  in  a  jar  of  water.  Put  a  few  eggs  in  a  single 
jar.  Do  not  have  the  water  very  deep.  Keep  a  very  small 
amount  of  green  algse  in  the  jar.  The  development  of  the  eggs 
into  tadpoles,  and  of  the  tadpoles  into  adult  animals  may  be 
watched  day  by  day  with  great  interest  if  they  are  kept  success- 
fully. If  the  eggs  are  obtained  while  in  the  earliest  stages  of 
development,  the  fact  can  be  clearly  seen  with  a  hand  lens  that 
the  little  globule  which  constitutes  the  egg  is  at  first  a  smooth 
sphere,  and  then  soon  it  has  a  crease  formed  on  its  surface  dividing 
it  into  halves,  that  these  again  divide  and  so  on  till  the  divisions 
become  so  small  that  they  can  no  longer  be  seen.  Of  course  the 
full  significance  of  this  fact  one  would  not  attempt  to  teach  here, 
but  it  is  well  worth  seeing  as  a  fact.  Then  every  step  of  forma- 
tion of  body,  head,  limbs,  tail,  etc.,  may  be  noted  as  the  process 
progresses. 


139 

Snails  and  Slugs. 

These  animals  are  so  familiar  that  they  will  be  recognized 
without  description.  The  slugs  are  in  form  and  anatomy  and 
habits  of  life  about  the  same  as  the  snails,  except  that  they  have 
no  shell.  The  shell  of  the  snail  of  course  offers  it  protection 
against  outside  attacks,  and  gives  it  a  place  in  which  to  with- 
draw when  the  air  is  dry.  But  snails  and  slugs  require  a  certain 
amount  of  moisture  in  their  surroundings  that  they  may  move 
about,  and  feed  and  lay  their  eggs.  The  pond  snails  of  course 
live  in  the  water.  The  large  orange  or  yellow  colored  slug  to  be 
found  in  some  parts  of  California  is  a  giant  among  slugs. 

Land  snails  and  slugs  may  be  easily  kept  among  the  plants 
in  a  moist  space,  or  under  a  glass  vessel,  or  in  a  fernery.  They 
live  on  vegetable  food.  The  pond  snails  live  well  in  the  aquaria. 
The  parts  that  may  be  studied  are:  Their  method  of  locomotion, 
their  feeding,  their  breathing,  their  eye  and  touch  tentacles,  their 
general  habits  of  life.  The  eggs  are  very  interesting  objects. 
Even  under  a  low  power  what  can  be  seen  of  the  gradual  change 
from  a  small  round  single  cell,  to  the  form  of  an  adult  snail  or 
slug  is  very  interesting.  Pond  snails  will  often  lay  a  bunch  of 
eggs  against  the  side  of  the  aquarium  in  a  good  place  for  obser- 
ving the  development  with  a  lens.  In  the  spring  and  summer 
large  numbers  of  these  eggs  may  be  found  on  the  weeds  in  ditches 
and  ponds. 

Land  snails  and  slugs  lay  their  eggs  in  moist  places  such  as 
under  stones,  pieces  of  wood,  leaves  or  in  moss.  They  may  be 
obtained  if  the  animals  are  kept  in  confinement  under  the  proper 
conditions  at  the  right  season. 


140 

Earthworms. 


These  animals  are  so  abundant,  easily  kept,  and  have  snob 
a  wealth  of  literature  in  regard  to  them  both  in  respect  to  their 
natural  history  and  concerning  their  structure,  development  and 
physiology,  that  they  become  valuable  as  school  material. 

For  lessons,  without  going  into  the  technical  matters  of  their 
structure  and  development,  there  is  good  material  in  the  habus 
of  life  of  these  animals.  Among  these  are:  Their  method  of  loco- 
motion, just  how  it  is  accomplished.  This  will  require  observa- 
tion of  method  of  elongation,  of  shortening  of  the  body,  of  the  use 
of  the  mucos,  of  the  position  and  method  of  using  the  minute 
projections,  found  in  rows  along  the  sides  of  the  body  (called 
setae);  their  method  of  making  and  using  their  burrows;  their 
method  of  feeding;  their  egg-laying  and  the  hatching  of  the  eggs; 
their  work  in  relation  to  the  soil  as  shown  in  the  work  by  Darwin 
on  "The  Formation  of  Vegetable  Mould  by  the  Action  of  the 
Worms."  This  book  is  very  interesting  and  is  instructive  beyond 
most  books  of  its  kind,  giving,  besides  a  wonderful  chapter  on 
natural  history,  illustrations  of  how  great  things  in  nature  are 
accomplished  by  insignificent  and  quiet  agents,  and  how  the 
patient,  scientific  method  of  observation  and  study  may  reveal  the 
most  wonderful  operations  going  on  under  our  very  feet. 

Earthworms  may  be  kept  indefinitely  in  a  box  half  filled 
with  moist  earth  with  a  tightly  fitting  cover  of  either  glass  or 
wood.  The  earth  should  contain  decaying  vegetable  matter  and 
should  be  kept  moist. 


Covering  of  Animals. 


The  coverings  of  animals  are  adaptations  to  the  conditions  of 
their  life,  and  are  all  interesting  objects  of  study.  Hair,  scales, 
thick  epidermis,  bony  plates,  spines,  and  feathers  of  various  forms 
are  in  endless  varieties. 

Feathers. 

Feathers  are  characteristic  of  birds  and  are  very  interesting 
when  their  true  meaning  is  seen.  For  a  lesson  on  feathers,  pro- 
vide a  bird  freshly  killed,  a  duck  or  a  fowl  from  the  market,  and  a 
quantity  of  feathers  sufficient  to  allow  each  pupil  to  have  exam- 
ples of  each  kind  in  hand  during  the  lessons.  If  the  question 
is  -asked :  "What  is  the  use  of  feathers  ? "  the  answer  that 
will  usually  come  is:  "To  keep  the  animal  warm.'J  This  is  one 


Fig.  80.  A  feather,  also  separate  parts  magnified;  a,  quill  feather  of  a  pigeon;  b, 
four  barbs  (magnified)  from  the  vane,  showing  the  barbules,  some  separated,  some  still 
clinging  together;  c,  a  cross  section  of  three  barbs  showing  how  they  cling  together; 
d,  a  barb  and  barbules  of  the  down;  at  one  side  a  barbule  more  highly  magnified.  These 
always  remain  loose. 

use  of  feathers,  but  the  lesson  is  to  show  that  this  is  by  no  means 
the  only  one,  perhaps  not  the  most  important  one.   (The  uses  are 


142  NATURE   STUDY 

not  to  be  told,  but  if  possible  to  be  brought  out  by  the  observation 
of  the  pupils.) 

First  of  all,  feathers  are  different  in  kind  and  have  different 
uses.  The  most  characteristic,  or  special  use  is  for  flight.  For 
the  water  birds  the  feathers  are  arranged  as  a  boat  in  which  the 
body  can  float.  The  bird  would  sink  without  its  feathers.  For  all 
birds,  feathers  keep  warm  in  cool  weather,  protect  from  the  rays 
of  the  sun  in  hot  weather,  protect  from  rain,  from  scratches  and 
other  mechanical  injury  in  flying,  or  in  running  thru  brush,  etc. 
They  serve  as  ornamentation  to  distinguish  each  other  and  to 
attract  mates. 

Examination  of  feathers.  To  have  a  basis  for  comparison 
examine  the  parts  of  a  single  feather,  e.  g.,  a  wing  feather  (fig.  80). 
It  possesses  an  axis,  running  its  length,  called  the  stem.  The 
hollow  part  is  the  quill.  The  whole  of  the  broad  portion  is  the 
vane.  The  axis  of  the  vane  is  the  rachis.  The  branches  of  the 
rachis  are  the  barbs,  and  the  minute  branches  of  the  barbs  are 
the  barbules. 

The  wing  feathers  and  often  the  tail  feathers  are  large  and 
strong.  The  barbs  and  barbules  of  each  feather  adhere  quite 
firmly,  and  the  feathers  overlap  so  that  when  the  wing  is  extended 
it  presents  a  broad,  firm  surface  with  which  to  strike  the  air. 
Have  the  pupils  separate  the  barbs  and  barbules,  smooth  them 
till  they  again  adhere,  and  examine  them  with  a  microscope  or 
hand  lens  to  determine  how  they  adhere. 

The  contour  feathers  are  those  all  over  the  body  whose  ends 
come  out  on  the  surface  and  overlap  one  another  like  shingles 
on  a  house.  The  barbules  on  the  outer  ends  adhere  as  in  the 
wing  feathers.  These  thus  fitting  over  each  other  make  the  out- 
line of  the  body,  and  when  well  oiled,  as  they  are  in  many  bird's, 
they  make  a  good  waterproof  coat.  The  inner  ends  have  barbs 
and  barbules,  very  fine  and  not  united,  being  downy. 

The  down  feathers  have  all  their  barbs  very  fine  and  diffuse. 


COVERINGS    OF   ANIMALS  143 

These  feathers  have  minute  quills,  and  being  next  the  body  are 
for  warmth.  They  make  a  soft  backing  for  the  contour  feathers, 
and  thus  also  give  protection  against  injury,  and  help  make  the 
"float"  for  the  swimming  bird's  body  to  rest  in. 

Many  birds  have  oil  glands  at  the  root  of  the  tail  from  which 
they  get  oil  to  rub  on  the  feathers. 

Ornamental  feathers  of  many  forms  are  interesting — such  as 
those  in  the  tails  of  roosters,  peacocks,  etc. 

The  color  markings  on  the  feathers  of  birds  may  form  a  series 
of  good  lessons.  How  they  are  arranged;  how  they  sometimes 
extend  from  feather  to  feather  to  make  definite  figures,  etc.;  how 
in  some  the  markings  are  stripes  so  arranged  that  the  birds  can 
hardly  be  seen  in  the  dry  grass;  in  others,  brilliant  to  attract  the 
attention  of  mates,  etc.  Always,  if  possible,  procure  the  bird  for 
the  lesson. 

The  moulting,  or  shedding  of  feathers  is  an  interesting  subject. 
Why  do  birds  moult  ?  How  often  ?  In  what  manner  ?  These  are 
some  of  the  questions  to  be  put.  Most  birds  moult  annually, 
some  twice  a  year.  (Ptarmigans  in  fall  get  a  white  plumage 
so  they  may  not  be  easily  seen  on  the  snow;  in  spring,  a  brown 
to  enable  them  to  hide  in  weeds,  rocks,  etc.) 

There  are  muscles  urider  the  skin  by  which  birds  can  raise 
their  feathers.  Some  of  these  are  strong  as  in  the  crests  of  some 
birds,  and  in  the  tails  of  turkeys  and  peafowls  which  have  the 
habit  of  strutting. 

If  the  feathers  be  removed  from  the  bird,  and  the  naked  skin 
observed  it  will  be  found  that  the  feathers  have  very  different 
kinds  of  arrangement.  The  arrangement  differs  in  different  kinds 
of  birds.  There  are  naked  patches,  and  patches  covered  with 
feathers,  and  in  the  latter  the  feathers  are  arranged  in  rows.  In 
some  forms  this  definite  arrangement  is  not  so  distinct  as  in  ducks, 
chickens,  and  oui  common  birds.  The  children  may  from  time 
to  time  compare  forms. 


144 


NATURE    STUDY 


Nora,— These  lessons  on  feathers  may  serve  as  suggestions 
lor  lessoug  on  the  coverings  of  other  animals. 


145 

Marine  Life. 


The  waters  of  any  portion  of  the  coast  furnish  material  for 
the  study  of  marine  forms.  In  the  markets  there  are  exposed 
for  sale  many  forms  brought  in  by  fishermen  from  the  grounds 
along  the  Coast.  It  would  take  a  long  time  to  exhaust  this  large 
field  at  the  very  doors  of  the  schools.  Many  forms  may  be  col- 
lected  by  the  pupils  for  the  school  work,  others  may  be  obtained  in 
the  markets  or  thru  fishermen  at  a  trifling  expense. 

Shrimps. 

Shrimps  may  be  obtained  in  the  market.  It  would  be  well  to 
begin  with  live  shrimps  kept  in  a  jar  of  sea  water.  They  will 
live  quite  a  while  in  fresh  water.  Their  motions  are  to  be  observed^ 
by  what  parts  they  are  accomplished,  and  how.  The  dead  shrimp 
is  then  studied,  its  appendages  (antennse,  jaws,  legs,  and  swiin- 
merets)  are  examined  and  the  attachments  to  the  body,  the 
joints  and  forms  and  uses  of  each;  the  body,  its  divisions  and  the 
joints  which  make  it  up.  The  two  parts  which  in  the  insect  are 
known  as  the  head  and  thorax  are,  in  the  shrimp,  fused  into  one 
case  known  as  the  ceph ale—thorax.  The  part  posterior  is  the 
abdomen,  corresponding  to  the  abdomen  of  insects.  The  shrimps 
in  the  aquarium  will  feed  on  shreds  of  meat. 

Lobsters. 

Lobsters  may  be  obtained  in  the  market  (not  alive).  Those 
which  are  red  have  been  boiled.  The  foym  is  to  be  studied  in  the 
same  way  as  that  of  the  shrimp,  and  then  the  two  compared,  and 
the  pupils  will  readily  perceive  that  they  are  very  much  alike 
thruout,  altho  at  first  they  appear  so  different.  Fresh  water  cray- 
fish can  sometimes  be  obtained  in  the  market.  It  is  well  to  com- 
pare this  form  with  the  lobster. 


146  NATUKK    STUDY 

Crabs. 

Crabs  may  also  be  obtained  at  the  market.  There  is  an 
abundance  of  small  crabs  to  be  found  along  the  marshes  and 
creeks  coming  into  the  ocean.  If  some  of  these  are  placed  in  a  jar 
half  filled  with  sand  moistened  with  sea  water,  they  will  remain 
alive  some  time,  will  burrow  in  the  sand  and  their  motions  and 
habits  may  be  studied. 

The  study  of  the  parts  of  the  crab  will  show  it  to  be  of  the 
same  plan  and  structure  as  that  of  the  shrimp  and  lobster.  The 
cephalo-thorax  is,  however,  very  broad,  and  the  abdomen  very 
small  and  narrow  and  folded  up  under  the  cephalo-thorax. 

Have  the  pupil  compare  the  three  limb  by  limb.  Prepara- 
tions of  each  of  these  make  interesting  additions  to  the  museum. 
These  forms  are  of  the  group  Crustacea. 

After  the  above  forms  are  studied,  a  good  lesson  may  be 
made  by  comparing  the  structure  of  a  shrimp  and  an  insect 
(grasshopper  or  beetle). 

Clams. 

Clams  may  be  obtained  in  the  market,  or,  as  some  of  the 
pupils  well  know,  by  digging  in  the  mud  at  low  tide  in  certain 
situations.  The  clams  buried  in  the  mud  have  what  are  called 
"long  necks."  This  is  a  projection  reaching  from  the  body  of  the 
clam,  as  it  is  buried  some  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  mud. 
It  contains  two  tubes,  one  of  which  brings  water  to  the  body  of  the 
animal,  while  the  other  carries  a  stream  of  water  away  from  the 
body.  The  animal  may  thus  hide  away  in  the  mud  and  yet  have 
a  current  of  sea  water  loaded  with  oxygen  and  the  fine  particles  of 
food  on  which  it  lives  flow  thru  it,  passing  its  mouth  and  over  its 
gills.  In  the  study  of  the  body,  the  shell,  its  hinge,  its  muscles,  the 
body,  the  gills  and  the  "foot,"  are  to  be  looked  for.  In  some 
of  the  higher  grades  these  points  in  structure  may  be  made  out, 
and  then  the  pupils  led  to  find  the  same,  if  they  can  be  detected, 
in  mussels  and  oysters,  forms  without  the  "neck." 


147 
Ants'  Nests. 


An  exceedingly  interesting  and  instructive  object  for  pupils 
of  all  grades  is  a  colony  of  ants  so  kept  that  they  can  be  observed 
in  their  daily  work  in  and  about  their  nests. 

Students  of  ants  have  devised  various  means  for  thus  arrang- 
ing their  nests.  One  method  is  to  place  the  colony  in  a  glass  jar 
partially  filled  with  earth.  The  mouth  of  the  jar  is  covered  with 
gauze  or  netting  to  prevent  their  escape.  The  jar  should  have 
its  sides  covered  with  a  thick  dark  cloth,  which  can  be  removed 
to  make  observations.  In  capturing  the  colony,  the  queen  should 
be  obtained  if  possible.  Soon  after  the  ants  are  placed  in  the 
jar  with  the  dirt,  they  will  begin  to  make  excavations,  and  some 
of  their  tunnels  may  be  against  the  sides  of  the  glass.  If  this  is 
fortunately  the  case  their  life  in  the  nest  may  be  observed. 

A  much  better  nest  was  devised  by  Sir  John  Lubbock.  It 
consists  of  two  sheets  of  glass  of  about  8xio  inches.  These  are 
held  apart  at  the  edges  by  narrow,  thin  strips  of  wood,  about  the 
thickness  of  a  lead  pencil,  the  thickness  being  but  slightly  higher 
than  the  ants  to  be  confined.  These  strips  are  placed  between 
the  sheets  at  their  outer  edges.  At  one  corner  a  space  of  about 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  is  left,  which  is  to  be  the  door  for  the  entrance 
and  exit  of  the  ants.  The  remaining  space  between  the  glass 
sheets  is  filled  with  pulverized  earth,  very  slightly  moist. 

This  is  to  be  the  nest.  This  is  placed  in  a  shallow  box  a 
few  inches  wider  each  way  than  the  nest.  Around  the  edges  of 
the  box  is  tacked  a  strip  of  fur,  which  acts  as  a  fence  to  retain  the 
ants  within  bounds. 

The  margin  between  the  nest  and  sides  of  the  box  give  a 
space  for  the  ants  to  wander  about  in,  and  in  which  to  place  food 
and  water.  A  piece  of  cloth  should  cover  the  nest.  A  large  sheet 
of  glass  may  cover  the  shallow  box  to  prevent  too  rapid  evapora- 
tion. 


148  NATURE  STUDY 

The  next  step  is  to  capture  the  ants  and  induce  them  to  enter 
the  nest.     A  colony  of  ants  with  the  queen  is  captured  as  before. 
The  queen  may  be  distinguished  from  the  workers  by  her  larger 
size.     They  may  be  brought  home  in  a  glass  jar  mingled  with 
the  earth  of  their  former  nest.     The  whole  mass  of  ants  and  dirt 
is  placed  on  top  of  the  nest  prepared  as  above.     The  ants,  as  this 
dirt  dries  out,  bury  themselves  deep  in  it.     Scrape  away  and 
remove  all  the  dirt  that  you  can  from  the  mass  from  time  to 
time.     This  reduction  of  the  dirt  in  which  they  are  hiding  leads 
them  to  look  for  other  quarters.     They  will  be  likely  to  discover 
the  door  left  for  them,  at  which  point  they  will  begin  to  excavate 
a  tunnel  into  the  prepared  nest.     This  tunnel  finally  becomes  a 
system  of  tunnels  and  passages,  forming  their  new  home.     In 
this  can  be  studied  the  wonderful  life  of  the  colony,  by  removing 
the  black  cloth.     The  ants  must  be  well  fed  and  watered.     Sugar, 
bits  of  meat,  crumbs  of  bread,  and  seeds  of  plants  are  foods  of 
different  ants.      This  nest  may  be  kept  for  a  long  time.     For 
fuller  accounts  consult  Lubbock's  "Ants,  Bees  and  Wasps, "  Inter- 
national Scientific  Series.    There  is  an  excellent  description  of  an 
ant's  nest  iu  Comstock's  Insect  Life  (Appleton)  page  276. 


149 


Gases. 

Oxygen. 

The  air  contains  constantly  oxygen,  nitrogen,  argon,  carbonic 
acid,  and  vapor  of  water.  The  first  two  make  up  the  main  bulk 
of  the  air,  the  last  three  are  very  small  in  amount.  We  wish  to 
study  each  of  these  gases,  except  argon,  a  recently  discovered 
one,  which  in  this  work  we  cannot  make  or  isolate.  Oxygen  can 
be  made  and  studied  with  very  simple  apparatus. 

The  materials  used  are  potassium  chlorate  and  black  oxide  of 
manganese.  The  potassium  chlorate  gives  up  the  oxygen  it  con- 
tains very  readily  on  heating.  In  fact  it  is  liable  to  give  off  such 
a  large  quantity  of  gas  at  once,  as  to  produce  an  explosion.  Con- 
sequently we  mix  with  it  the  black  oxide  of  manganese,  which 
seems  to  retard  the  giving  off  of  the  oxygen. 

Mix  well  equal  amounts  of  the  two  substances  (fig.  81.)  A 
test  tube  one-third  full  will  make  sufficient  gas  for  the  work.  Fit 
the  test-tube  with  an  air  tight  cork  and  a  glass  tube  to  carry  off 
the  gas.  To  catch  the  gas,  have  ready  at  least  five  wide-mouthed 
bottles  (8  to  15  oz.  in  size).  These  are  filled  with  water  and 
inverted  in  a  pan  of  water.  The  delivery-tube  carrying  the  gas 
from  the  test-tube  is  bent  so  that  it  can  be  made  to  conveniently 
reach  under  the  mouth  of  an  inverted  bottle.  When  all  is  ready, 
with  the  alcohol  lamp  heat  the  potassium  chlorate  and  black 
oxide  of  manganese  mixture  and  the  gas  will  rapidly  come  away 
and  bubble  up  into  the  inverted  bottle,  displacing  the  water  and 
filling  the  bottle.  Then  another  bottle  is  brought  over  and  so  on, 
till  all  are  filled,  or  the  oxygen  gives  out. 

In  beginning  to  apply  the  heat,  do  so  at  first  gently  and  to 
the  upper  part  of  the  test-tube.  This  will  heat  the  tube  and  pre- 
vent moisture  forming  on  it  later  and  breaking  the  tube.  Next 
heat  the  upper  part  of  the  potassium  chlorate  mixture,  first  ex- 


150 


NATURE  STUDY 


GASES  151 

hausting  its  oxygen,  then  work  downwards.  If  you  begin  at  the 
bottom  of  the  mixture,  as  the  gas  comes  off,  it  is  liable  to  puff 
the  black  dust  up  and  choke  the  delivery  tube.  After  once  begin- 
ning to  make  the  oxygen,  the  lamp  flame  must  not  be  taken 
away  from  the  test-tube  while  the  delivery  tube  is  under  water. 
The  cooling  of  the  tube  will  contract  the  gas,  and  water  will  rush 
back  and  break  the  hot  tube. 

All  the  apparatus  may  be  held  with  the  hands.  One  pupil 
may  attend  to  the  bottles;  one  hold  the  test-tube,  using  a  thick 
handle  of  paper  as  a  holder;  another  may  manage  the  lamp.  A 
stand  and  other  conveniences  may  be  used.  For  descriptions- 
and  figures  see  any  elementary  text-book  in  chemistry. 

NOTE — Every  single  operation  of  the  above  should  be  ques- 
tioned about,  and  explained  by  the  pupil,  as  every  step  is  a  good 
lesson. 

Now  that  we  have  five  or  more  bottles  of  oxygen,  they  may 
be  tested  as  follows: 

Into  one  bottle,have  one  of  the  children  insert  alighted  splinter. 
Let  the  fire  be  extinguished  except  a  small  glow  at  the  end. 
Also  have  a  small  piece  of  lighted  candle  attached  to  a  wire 
'thrust  down  into  the  jar. 

A  piece  of  sulphur  may  be  burned  in  the  next  jar.  A  little 
cup  made  from  a  piece  of  crayon  fastened  to  a  wire  can  be  used 
to  hold  the  lighted  piece  of  sulphur  while  inserting  it  into  the  jar. 

A  fine  iron  or  steel  wire  may  be  burned.  The  wire  may  be 
bent  into  a  spiral  form  by  wrapping  it  about  a  round  lead  pencil. 
To  one  end  of  the  wire  attach  a  very  small  splinter,  or  bit  of  sul- 
phur to  serve  as  a  lighter.  The  wood  or  sulphur  is  lighted,  and 
the  wire  thrust  into  the  jar  of  oxygen. 

To  burn  charcoal,  a  charred  splinter,  or  a  glowing  coal  fast- 
ened to  a  wire  may  be  used. 

A  brilliant  effect  is  produced  by  heating  a  teaspoonful  of 


I52  NATURE   STUDY 

finely  powdered  charcoal  to  a  glow,  and  then  letting  it  fall  into  a 
jar  of  oxygen. 

The  burning  of  phosphorous  gives  the  brightest  light.  Phos- 
phorus must  be  handled  with  care.  It  is  best  to  use  a  pair  of 
forceps,  and  cut  the  piece  to  be  used  under  water.  Dry  the  water 
off  with  blotting  paper.  It  lights  easily  by  friction,  and  a  small 
piece  of  burning  phosphorus  on  the  hand  makes  a  painful  and 
bad  wound.  It  is  poisonous.  Handled  carefully  there  is  no  dan- 
ger. All  small  pieces  must  be  picked  up  and  put  back  into  a 
bottle  of  water  where  it  is  best  kept.  The  phosphorus  is  burned 
in  the  crayon  cup  as  was  the  sulphur. 

Now  questions  will  arise  as  to  what  are  the  results  of  the 
burning  in  each  case.  The  white  smoke  in  the  last  is  a  combina- 
tion of  oxygen  and  phosphorus,  and  in  each  of  the  other  cases  an 
oxide  is  formed  e.  </.,  of  carbon,  of  iron,  and  of  sulphur.  Each  of 
the  above  experiments  should  be  repeated  until  it  is  clearly  seen  just 
what  has  taken  place. 

These  experiments  are  so  interesting  to  children,  that  they 
will  not  mind  having  them  repeated  many  times.  This  is  good 
for  giving  them  clearer  notions,  better  command  of  handling 
apparatus,  and  a  familiarity  with  the  facts. 

Carbonic  Acid. 

Most  of  the  children  have  learned  that  there  is  carbonic  acid 
in  the  air;  that  it  comes  from  the  lungs  in  air  breathed  out,  and 
that  it  is  made  by  burning  lamps  and  candles. 

As  a  good  test  for  the  gas  will  be  of  great  service,  it  would  be 
better  at  the  very  start  to  explain  how  lime  water  is  so  used. 
Lime  water  is  readily  made  by  putting  some  lime  into  water  and 
allowing  it  to  stand  until  the  excess  settles,  leaving  the  solution 
above  clear.  Pour  off  the  clear  liquid  for  use.  It  can  be  pur- 
chased ready  made  at  the  drug  store. 

A  small  amount  of  carbonic  acid  shaken  up  with  the  lime 


GASES  153 

water  makes  a  white  substance  in  the  water,  thus  giving 
a  milky  appearance.  The  substance  formed  is  carbonate  of  lime. 

One  of  the  children  can  breathe  air  thru  a  small  amount 
of  lime  water  in  a  test-tube  or  other  glass  vessel.  The  lime  water 
turns  white,  thus  proving  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid. 

A  bit  of  a  candle  is  placed  in  the  bottom  of  a  glass  tumbler, 
which  is  covered  with  a  book.  The  candle  soon  goes  out.  Test 
the  gas  left  with  lime  water. 

An  inverted  glass  is  held  over  the  chimney  of  a  burning 
lamp.  Slip  a  card  over  the  mouth,  and  test  the  carbonic  acid. 
The  gas  coming  from  various  burning  substances  may  be  tested- 

To  make  carbonic  acid  in  a  quantity  unmixed  with  air,  etc., 
pound  up  into  small  pieces  limestone  or  marble;  place  in  a  wide- 
mouthed  bottle  or  flask,  into  which  is  fitted  a  cork  and  delivery 
tube.  Cover  the  marble  with  water,  then  pour  in  some  muriatic 
or  sulphuric  acid.  Bubbles  of  carbonic  acid  come  off  rapidly. 
As  it  is  heavier  than  air  of  the  same  temperature,  it  can  be  caught 
in  empty  jars  or  bottles  standing  upright,  lightly  covered  with 
cards.  When  a  few  jars  have  been  obtained,  try  them  with  lime 
water,  lighted  candles,  lighted  splinters,  etc.  Show  that  the  gas 
is  heavier  than  air  by  pouring  carbonic  acid  into  a  jar  which 
contains  only  air,  then  testing  this  jar's  contents;  or  pour  some 
into  a  jar  at  the  bottom  of  which  is  a  lighted  candle. 

Many  other  experiments  can  be  made  with  the  carbonic  acid, 
making  the  pupils  familiar  with  its  properties. 

Diffusion  of  Gases. 

That  gases  diffuse  themselves  out  into  the  air  from  the  vessels 
which  contain  them,  may  be  shown  by  leaving  a  jar  of  carbonic 
acid  uncovered  for  a  short  time.  Altho  heavier  than  air,  it  leaves 
the  jar.  An  inverted  jar  of  oxygen  will  show  the  same.  Altho 
lighter  than  air  it  will  not  stay  in  the  jar.  The  same  is  true  with 
illuminating  gas,  vapor  of  gasoline,  of  ether,  etc.  These  experi- 


154  NATURE   STUDY 

ments  make  it  clear  why  the  different  gases  in  the  air  are  thoroly 
mingled,  instead  of  the  hea.vier  settling  to  the  bottom  and  the 
lighter  going  to  the  top. 

Making  Gas, 

The  process  of  making  illuminating  gas  may  thus  be 
illustrated: 

Into  a  test-tube  place  bits  of  wood,  shavings,  or  sawdust. 
Arrange  apparatus  as  in  figure  81.  A  delivery- tube  is  fitted  to 
this,  as  in  making  oxygen.  Jars  for  catching  the  gas  are  arranged 
also  as  in  the  oxygen  experiment.  The  test-tube  full  of  wood  is 
now  heated,  and  the  gas  coming  away  is  caught.  The  first  gas 
coming  off  is  heated  air  from  the  tube.  Later,  gas  from  the 
decomposing  wood  will  fill  a  small  jar.  This  gas  may  be  lighted, 
and  it  will  be  seen  to  burn  with  a  blue  flame.  It  is  a  mixture 
of  gases. 

In  the  test-tube  is  found  carbon,  the  charred  remains  of  the 
wood.  The  delivery-tube  will  be  coated  inside  with  tar.  If  a 
larger  apparatus  be  used,  say  an  iron  retort  (this  may  be  made 
of  iron  gas  pipe),  a  greater  heat  may  be  used,  and  coal  may  take 
the  place  of  wood,  and  by  this  means  a  considerable  amount  of 
gas  can  be  obtained. 

It  may  now  be  shown  how,  in  making  illuminating  gas,  a 
very  large  retort  is  used;  arrangements  are  made  to  separate  the 
tar  and  other  substances  from  the  gases;  also  those  gases  in  the 
mixture  which  interfere  with  the  illuminating  power;  show  that  the 
large  iron  gas  tank  corresponds  to  the  jar  catching  gas  in  the 
experiment. 

A  visit  to  the  gas  works  will  now  be  of  great  interest,  and 
the  main  processes  there  carried  out  can  be  clearly  understood. 

The  Candle  Flame. 

The  special  study  of  the  candle  flame  will  be  best  taken  up 
some  time  after  the  making  of  gas  out  of  wood.  The  pupils  are 


GASES 


155 


to  find  out  that  it  is  a  gas  flame,  the  brilliant  light  being  pro- 
duced by  minute  particles  of  carbon  becoming  incandescent  as 
they  pass  from  the  central  portion,  where  no  combustion  is  going 
on,  thru  the  part  lying  just  outside  of  this  where  the  gases  are  in 
active  combustion.  The  gases  which  burn  and  the  carbon  which 
thus  makes  the  light  and  is  finally  consumed,  are  all  from  the  oil  of 
the  candle  being  decomposed  into  these  products  by  the  heat, 
just  as  the  same  products  are  made  out  of  coal  by  heat  in  the 
process  of  the  manufacture  of  illuminating  gas,  and  in  the  mak- 
ing of  gas  out  of  wood  in  the  experiments  already  given.  None 
of  these  facts  is  to  be  told  at  first. 

By  cutting  a  few  candles  in- 
to short  pieces  each  pupil  can 
have  his  own  flame  to  study. 

Let  each  try  to  make  out  the 
parts  of  the  flame  (fig.  82).  It 
will  be  found  that  there  are  four: 
the  blue  cup  at  the  bottom;  a 
thin,  almost  transparent  outer 
sheet  of  flame;  a  brilliant  light- 
giving  part  just  underneath  this; 
and  a  dark  central  portion.  In 
the  dark  central  portion  is  a 
mass  of  gases  charged  with  black 
floating  particles  of  carbon 
(smoke).  If  a  sheet  of  paper  held 
horizontally  is  suddenly  thrust 
down  on  the  flame  to  about  its 
middle  and  held  for  a  short  time, 
but  removed  just  before  it  breaks 
into  a  flame,  a  round  ring  is 

i      -i  ,-> 

SCOrched     Oil     the     paper     COrrCS- 

ponding  to  the  two  outer  coats 


Fig.  82.   candle  flame  showing  the  four 

parts  described  in   the  text,  also  showing 
the  method  of  introducing  a  small  tube 


156  NATURE  STUDY 

of  flame.  The  center  is  unscorched  and  may  be  blackened.  This 
is  where  the  dark  central  portion  of  the  flame  was  in  contact  with 
the  paper.  If  a  splinter  of  wood  is  held  across  the  flame  a  short 
time,  it  will  be  scorched  where  the  outer  coats  touch  it,  but  un- 
scorched where  the  central  portion  meets  it. 

A  very  small  glass  tube  three  or  four  inches  long  may  be 
thrust  into  the  central  portion  and  the  outer  end  inclined  upward. 
In  this  position  it  will  tap  the  central  portion,  when  smoke  will 
issue  from  the  tube.  This  may  be  lighted,  and  thus  give  us  a 
a  new  small  flame,  showing  that  the  central  portion  is  composed 
of  combustible  gases, 

The  blue  cup  at  the  bottom  is  just  in  the  position  where  the 
ascending  currents  of  air  strike  it  to  the  best  advantage,  and 
insures  good  combustion  without  smoke  and  floating  particles  of 
carbon.  This  gives  great  heat,  but  little  light. 

The  air  reaches  the  two  outer  coats  of  the  flame,  and  com- 
bustion takes  place  in  them.  In  the  one  next  the  dark  center 
the  carbon  particles,  as  has  been  said,  are  passing  thru  and 
glow  with  a  bright  light.  They  are  completely  burned  in  the 
outer  coat. 

That  particles  of  carbon  may  make  a  colorless  flame  bright 
may  be  shown  by  sprinkling  lamp  black  or  powdered  charcoal  into 
an  alcohol  flame.  On  the  other  hand,  if  with  a  glass  tube  drawn 
out  to  a  fine  point,  or  with  a  blow  pipe,  air  is  blown  well  into  a 
candle  flame,  the  whole  of  the  flame  will  become  blue,  no  longer 
giving  out  much  light. 

A  better  supply  of  air  makes  a  more  prompt  combustion  of 
all  gases  and  carbon,  but  with  the  result  of  less  illumination. 

If  the  supply  of  air  to  the  candle  flame  is  interfered  with,  the 
flame  smokes,  much  of  the  carbon  and  gases  escaping  unconsumed. 

The  smoking  lamp  or  the  smoking  fire  means  poor  com- 
bustion. In  each  case  the  smoke  can  be  reduced  by  a  better 
supply  of  air.  Questions  may  be  proposed  which  will  explain  the 


GASES  157 

advantage  of  lamp  chimneys,  smoke-stacks,  tall  chimneys,  and 
other  devices  for  causing  better  combustion. 

Cooling  the  candle  flame  by  thrusting  into  it  a  cold  sub- 
stance, such  as  a  bar  of  metal,  causes  it  to  smoke.  Carbon  burns 
only  at  a  high  temperature,  and  in  this  case  much  heat  is  lost  to 
the  cold  substance. 

Those  substances  which  contain  much  carbon,  such  as  tur- 
pentine, camphor,  and  sealing  wax,  may  be  made  to  give  out  a 
very  black  smoke.  The  carbon  may  be  caught  as  soot  or  lamp 
black,  which  subsequently  can  be  burned. 

In  general,  we  depend  upon  the  carbon  for  the  light  in  the 
illuminating  flame,  but  in  the  calcium  light  a  very  hot  flame  ia 
used  to  heat  a  piece  of  lime  (calcium  oxide)  to  a  white  heat, 
which  gives  out  the  bright  light.  In  the  stereopticon,  oxygen  and 
illuminating  gas  are  used  to  heat  the  lime.  In  the  class  room  a 
blow-pipe  and  an  alcohol  flame  can  be  made  to  give  a  bright 
glow  to  a  piece  of  lime  sufficient  to  illustrate  this  point.  In 
burning  a  bit  of  magnesium  ribbon,  it  is  the  white  dust,  the 
magnesium  oxide  resulting  from  the  combustion,  that  gives  the 
light. 

The  foregoing  should  be  broken  up  into  many  lessons.  These 
will  suggest  many  others.  The  applications  of  what  has  been 
given  are  very  numerous,  and  if  well  followed  out  will  make  clear 
many  things  in  every  day's  experience  with  lights  and  fires. 


158 

Magnetism. 


Magnets. 

For  lessons  on  magnets  an  ordinary  horse-shoe  magnet,  such  as 
any  boy  may  carry  in  his  pocket,  will  answer.  It  is  well  also  to 
have  a  bar  magnet. 

Provide  some  small  articles  of  soft  iron  and  of  steel.  Ordinary 
knitting  needles  or  sewing  needles  will  do  for  steel.  Try  the  soft  iron 
first.  It  will  readily  be  drawn  to  the  magnet.  While  it  is  still 
attached,  put  the  free  end  of  the  soft  iron  into  iron-filings.  Then 
withdraw  the  magnet.  What  happens?  Try  the  same  with  a  piece  of 
steel.  If  you  have  pure  soft  iron,  it  will  be  found  that  it  remains  a 
magnet  only  when  in  contact  with  a  magnet,  but  that  steel 
retains  its  magnetism  for  some  time.  Let  the  children  find  what 
things  are  attracted  by  the  magnet,  what  not. 

Sewing  needles  may  be  magnetized  by  drawing  one  pole  of 
the  magnet  several  times  across  them,  drawing  the  magnet  only 
one  way.  A  needle  is  conveniently  suspended  by  being  thrust  thru 
a  cardboard  triangle,  and  the  triangle  suspended  from  one  of  its 
points.  Note  in  what  position  the  needles  come  to  rest.  Suspend  two 
needles  near  together  and  bring  two  south  poles  together.  What 
happens?  Bring  two  north  poles  together.  What  happens?  A 
north  and  a  south?  The  facts  of  attraction  and  repulsion  may  be 
shown  as  well  by  using  one  needle  and  a  magnet,  but  care  must  be 
taken  that  the  magnet  does  not  come  into  contact  with  the  needle, 
or  the  poles  of  the  needle  may  be  reversed.  For  reason  see  some  text- 
book on  Physics.  The  compass  may  now  be  brought  in  and  the  class 
will  be  able  to  see  that  it  acts  in  the  same  way  as  their  suspended 
needles.  It  may  be  interesting  to  children  to  know  that  the  earth 
acts  as  a  huge  magnet, but  that  its  magnetic  poles  do  not  correspond 
with  its  geographical  poles.  The  magnetic  needle  does  not  point 
to  the  true  geographical  north,  but  to  the  east  or  west  of  it.  At 


MAGNETISM  159 

Stanford  University  the  compass  points  19  degrees  east  of  the  true 
north.     (1899.) 

A  pretty  experiment  to  show  lines  of  magnetic  force  can  be 
performed  by  shaking  a  few  fine  iron-filings  over  a  piece  of  paper 
or  glass  under  which  the  magnet  is  placed.  If  the  lines  do  not 
form  at  once,  shake  the  paper  or  glass  gently. 
i  The  children  may  be  interested  in  finding  out  about  natural 
magnets,  how  magnets  are  made,  and  their  uses. 

Variation  of  the  Magnetic  Needle. 

To  determine  the  true  direction  of  the  magnetic  needle  (that 
is,  the  "variation  of  the  needle"):  After  dark  on  a  clear  night 
suspend  two  plumb  lines  (threads  with  weights  attached  about 
one  foot  apart)  from  suitable  supports.  The  back  of  a  chair  may 
be  used  for  this.  Then  bring  the  two  stretched  threads  in  an 
exact  line  with  the  North  Star.  On  a  support  (a  box  on  end  will 
do)  between  the  lines  lay  a  sheet  of  paper  horizontally  placed. 
With  a  ruler  and  pencil  draw  a  line  on  the  paper  Justin  line  with 
the  two  threads.  This  line,  if  all  is  done  carefully,  is  approxi- 
mately the  true  north  and  south  direction.  By  placing  the  com- 
pass on  this  line,  the  "variation"  of  the  needle  will  be  found  to 
be  about  19  degrees  east  of  north — that  is,  the  true  north  is  19 
degrees  west  of  the  magnetic  north.  This  varies  in  the  different 
parts  of  the  world  very  much,  and  is  changing,  slightly,  every 
year  here  (Stanford  University). 

It  must  also  be  remembered  that  the  North  Star  has  an 
apparent  daily  revolution  of  a  very  small  diameter  about  the  true 
north,  consequently  it  is  exactly  north  but  twice  in  twenty-four 
hours,  but  it  requires  more  accurate  instruments  than  ours 
to  detect  these  differences.  (See  text-books  on  Physical  Geog- 
raphy and  Astronomy.) 

Many  questions  will  rise  in  connection  with  this  rather 
simple  experiment,  which  with  some  of  the  grades  may  be 


i6o 


NATURE  STUDY 


pursued  with  profit,  such  as,  Why  is  a  certain  star  the  North 
Star?  the  difference  between  the  North  Magnetic  Pole  and  the 
North  Pole. 


The  Pendulum. 


The  pendulum  as  our  time  marker,  and  its  importance  in 
relation  to  timepieces,  is  sufficient  excuse  for  making  some  simple 
lessons  with  it  as  the  subject. 

Suspend  a  small  weight  from  a  convenient  place  by  a  strong 
thread,  thirty-nine  inches  long,  the  length  counted  from  the 
point  where  the  thread  is  attached  to  the  center  of  the  weight. 
Have  the  pupils  determine  how  many  times  in  a  minute  this 
pendulum  vibrates.  If  it  does  not  vibrate  sixty  times  in  a 
minute,  correct  the  length  till  this  is  its  rate.  Keep  this  pendu- 
lum as  the  time  keeper  for  the  succeeding  experiments. 

Have  them  make  other  pendulums  of  the  same  length,  some 
with  much  heavier  weights  and  some  with  lighter  weights,  and 
determine  if  there  are  differences  in  the  rate. 

Have  the  pupils  construct  a  pendulum  long  enough  to  vibrate 
once  in  two  seconds,  and  one  short  enough  to  vibrate  twice  in  a 
second.  Let  them  measure  and  compare  these  with  the  seconds 
pendulum.  Do  the  same  for  pendulums  vibrating  once  in  three 
seconds  and  three  times  in  a  second.  A  high  ceiling,  a  window 
or  a  tree  will  give  an  opportunity  for  hanging  a  long  pendulum. 

The  use  of  the  pendulum  as  a  time  instrument  can  now  be 
explained.  The  importance  of  accurate  and  uniform  time  in 
business  and  in  railroad  and  other  travel,  etc.,  may  be  seen. 
On  Mt.  Hamilton  avery  day  at  noon  a  pendulum  in  a  fine  clock 
stationed  there  is  connected  by  electric  wires  with  most  Western 
Union  Telegraph  Offices  011  the  Pacific  Coast.  In  any  one  of 
these  offices  at  noon  any  one  can  hear  the  telegraph  instrument 
beating  in  unison  with  the  pendulum  on  Mt.  Hamilton.  Thus 
all  timepieces  might  be  kept  in  accurate  accord  with  this  one. 

In  other  parts  of  the  United  States  there  are  centers  from  which 


162  NATURE  STUDY 

* 

the  time  is  sent  out  in  the  same  way  over  regions  assigned  to  each 
•center. 

The  story  of  the  discovery  of  the  properties  of  the  pendulum 
and  the  effect  of  its  application  to  time  keeping,  could  be  made 
interesting  and  profitable.  (See  Encyclopedia,  etc.) 

The  relation  of  the  pendulum  to  falling  bodies;  the 
effect  on  the  pendulum  if  the  earth  were  heavier  or  lighter  or  if 
the  pendulum  were  near  or  farther  away  from  the  center  of  the 
earth,  are  subjects  which  might  be  taken  up  in  some  of  the  grades 
under  certain  conditions,  but  would  perhaps  better  be  deferred  at 
present. 

Soap  Bubbles. 

Blowing  soap  bubbles  is  a  fascinating  exercise  for  almost 
any  grade,  and  may  be  repeated  without  fear  of  tiring.  They 
are  so  familiar  to  every  one  that  how  to  make  them  and  what  to 
do  with  them  need  hardly  be  told.  It  might  be  worth  while  to 
say  that  for  making  very  tenacious  bubbles  that  will  become  very 
large  and  stand  rough  handling,  use  very  good  soap  and  rain- 
water or  distilled  water.  Slice  the  soap  into  shavings  and  make 
a  very  strong  solution,  and  mix  with  this  a  good  quality  ot 
glycerine  or  molasses;  the  latter  is  better.  It  is  wonderful  what 
may  be  done  with  these  bubbles. 

Bubbles  show  the  tenacity  of  liquids  (try  pure  water,  alco- 
hol, glycerine,  or  molasses  alone).  As  the  bubbles  grow  older  they 
become  very  thin  in  their  upper  parts,  showing  brilliant  colors, 
due  to  interference  of  light  (see  text-books  on  Physics).  They 
may  be  made  to  contain  different  gases,  e.  g.,  air,  carbonic  acid, 
illuminating  gas,  hydrogen,  and  thus  used  to  show  which  is  lighter 
than  air.  To  blow  bubbles  with  these  gases  is  somewhat  trouble- 
some, as  gas  bags  or  reservoirs  filled  with  the  gas  under  pressure  are 
necessary.  The  clay  pipe  is  connected  with  a  tube  from  the  reservoir, 
and  the  gas  turned  on  as  required  to  fill  out  sufficiently  the  bubble. 
One  may  be  fortunate  enough  to  have  the  gas  come  off  from  the 


SOAP    BUBBLES.  163 

generator  with  the  pressure  and  regularity  necessary  to  blow  the 
bubbles.  In  a  room,  fans  are  convenient  to  keep  the  bubbles  up 
in  the  air.  Placed  over  a  stove  or  radiator  or  furnace  opening, 
they  will  rise  with  the  current  of  air. 


164 

Lead  Pencils. 


This  lesson  will  make  plain  the  structure  and  materials  of 
the  most  common  instrument  of  the  schoolroom,  the  lead  pencil. 

If  possible,  obtain  some  pieces  of  graphite,  also  a  cake  of 
Btove  polish,  and  a  tube  of  bicycle-chain  lubricant.  For  com- 
parison, have  a  bar  of  lead.  Soak  some  lead  pencils  in  water  until 
the  two  parts  of  wood  will  separate.  Have  at  hand  a  series  of 
pencils  ranging  from  very  soft  to  very  hard. 

Begin  the  lesson  with  an  examination  of  the  pieces  of 
graphite.  The  children  will  note  the  properties;  heavy,  black, 
will  rub  off  easily,  and  consequently  will  mark  a  paper,  will  soil 
the  hands,  etc., (marking  by  a  substance  will  be  seen  to  be  a  rubbing 
off  of  a  part  of  that  substance).  It  is  also  very  smooth,  being  soapy 
to  the  feel  of  the  fingers.  This  is  graphite,  the  substance  which 
forms  the  center  part  of  our  lead  pencils.  It  is  not  lead  at  all. 
Now  compare  with  real  lead.  It  is  soft,  will  mark  a  paper  also, 
but  is  quite  different  from  graphite.  Graphite  used  to  be  called 
black  lead,  and  this  gave  the  name  to  the  pencils. 

The  children  may  now  listen  with  interest  to  an  account  of 
how  lead  pencils  are  made.  The  graphite  is  reduced  to  a  very 
fine  powder  and  mixed  with  water  into  a  sort  of  black  mud.  A 
similar  mixture  of  fine  clay  and  water  is  made.  Then  a  mixture 
of  these  two  is  placed  in  a  press,  which  has  for  a  bottom  a  sieve- 
like  plate,  the  holes  being  the  size  of  the  leads  for  the  pencils. 
Great  power  is  brought  upon  the  press,  forcing  the  thick  paste 
thru  the  holes.  This  makes  long,  slender  "leads."  These  are 
placed  on  boards,  dried,  and  then  baked  in  a  hot  oven. 

Two  pieces  of  wood  are  prepared,  as  the  soaked  pencil  will 
show,  which  are  to  be  glued  together.  In  one  is  sawed  a  groove 
into  which  the  lead  fits  exactly.  After  the  two  pieces  are  glued 
together,  the  whole  is  turned  round  or  cut  into  octagonal  or  other 
shapes,  polished,  varnished,  and  the  name  pressed  on. 


LEAD   PENCILS  165 

A  soft  pencil  has  more  graphite  and  less  clay  than  a  hard 
pencil.  The  hard  pencil  was  also  baked  with  greater  heat.  Show 
the  use  of  the  hard  and  soft  pencil,  and  what  is  a  good  and  a  bad 
pencil.  Sometimes  fine  graphite  is  sawed  into  leads  without  going 
thru  the  process  of  mixing  with  clay. 

Graphite  is  carbon,  the  same  substance  as  charcoal,  coal, 
and  diamond.  It  is  mined  in  the  United  States  and  England. 

Other  uses  of  graphite  are  as  a  lubricant,  as  stove  polish,  as 
crucibles.  Illustrate  and  bring  out  the  properties  which  make  it 
useful  in  each  of  these  cases.  ' 

The  wood  of  the  best  pencils  is  cedar,  which  is  almost  wholly 
derived  from  the  swamps  of  Florida. 


io6 

Metals  and  Minerals. 

The  metals  may  be  made  the  subjects  of  a  large  number  of 
lessons.  The  lessons  may  be  upon  the  properties  and  the  uses  of  the 
metals,  such  as  are  found  in  the  house,  in  the  car,  in  the  shop,  and 
wherever  the  pupil  may  discover  them.  Following  these,  there 
may  be  in  some  of  the  grades  a  limited  number  of  lessons  on 
the  ores  of  some  of  the  metals,  the  location  of  mines,  methods  of 
mining  and  extracting  the  metals. 

Provide  for  work  with  the  metals:  a  file,  a  hammer,  a  thick 
piece  of  iron  to  use  as  a  small  anvil  (a  flat  iron,  sometimes  with 
the  smooth  side  up  and  sometimes  with  the  pointed  side  up,  will 
serve  well),  a  knife  with  a  strong  blade,  a  large  iron  spoon,  and  a 
large  alcohol  lamp,  or  other  method  of  getting  a  strong  heat. 

Begin  the  lessons  with  lead,  copper,  zinc  and  iron  in  the 
form  of  strips,  or  of  thick  wire.  These  may  be  examined  care- 
fully in  respect  to  the  appearance  of  each,  then  each  tested  with 
the  above  instruments  by  the  pupils;  their  properties,  the  relative 
hardness,  flexibility,  action  under  hammer,  file,  and  knife,  and 
ease  of  melting.  Very  small  wires  of  each  would  allow  the  com- 
parison of  strength  of  each,  If  rods  of  equal  sizes  are  equally 
heated  at  one  end,  the  pupils  may  easily  detect,  by  holding  the 
other  ends  of  the  rods,  the  relative  quickness  with  which  they  arp 
heated.  Allow  them  to  find,  also,  which  tarnishes  or  rusts  most 
readily.  When  the  properties  of  each  are  well  seen,  have  the  pupils 
peek  in  the  next  few  days'  experience  the  places  where  these 
metals  are  used,  and  why  they  are  so  used  in  the  positions  in 
which  they  are  found. 

Of  course  in  some  cases  properties  which  the  pupil  has  not 
discovered,  such  as  its  relation  to  electricity,  or  such  considera- 
tions as  economy,  may  have  led  to  the  use  of  the  metal  in  some 
particular  position. 


METALS   AND   MINERAI3  167 

After  these  lessons,  aluminum,  nickel,  platinum,  silver  and 
gold  may  be  taken  up  and  examined  in  the  same  way, 

Some  of  the  more  rarely  seen  and  interesting  metals  can 
easily  be  obtained,  such  as  antimony,  and  bismuth,  beautifully 
crystalizing,  easily  melting;  mercury,  a  liquid  even  at  low 
temperatures;  sodium  and  potassium,  which  are  lighter  than, 
water,  and  burn  when  they  touch  ice  or  water;  magnesium, 
a  thin  strip  of  which  will  burn  in  air  with  a  most  brilliant 
light  when  lighted  with  a  match. 

Space  will  not  allow  the  detailed  directions  for  the  numerous 
lessons  that  may  be  made  with  all  of  these  metals.  The  obtaining 
the  metals  (easily  accomplished),  consultation  of  encyclopedias 
and  works  on  chemistry  for  further  facts  in  regard  to  them,  and 
experimentation  with  them,  and  some  ingenuity  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher,  will  supply  the  details  which  will  make  this  series 
sufficient  in  amount  and  interest,  to  extend,  with  the  intervals  of 
other  subjects,  thru  some  years. 

In  this  connection  are  to  be  examined  some  of  the  more 
common  alloys,  such  as  brass,  type  metal,  solder,  gun  metal, 
bell  metal. 

The  sources  mentioned  above  will  also  give  information  in 
regard  to  the  composition  and  uses  of  these  alloys. 

Minerals  make  a  most  interesting  and  profitable  field  for 
nature  study.  A  knowledge  of  the  common  rocks  of  the  neigh- 
borhood and  their  constituent  minerals  would  give  the  teacher  a 
very  rich  source  of  material. 


-168 


The  Moon. 


A  study  of  the  motions  of  the  moon  makes  a  good  beginning 
toward  a  clear  understanding  of  the  apparent  and  real  motions 
of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars. 

On  the  first  evening  that  the  moon  can  be  seen  after  "new 
moon,"  have  the  pupils  note  how  near  it  is  to  some  star.  Venus 
may  be  in  a  good  position  near  the  moon.  On  the  following 
evening  they  are  again  to  note  its  relation  to  this  star.  They 
may  make  their  notes  by  making  a  sketch  of  moon  and  star  each 
night.  The  changing  shape  of  the  illuminated  part  of  the  moon 
is  also  to  be  noted  each  night.  Soon  the  moon  will  be  so  far 
from  the  star  that  it  cannot  well  be  used  to  mark  the  progress. 
Then  another  star  nearer  to  it,  in  its  new  position,  may  be  used 
as  the  mark. 

At  first  only  these  notes  are  to  be  taken.  After  the  moon 
has  made  considerable  progress  among  the  stars,  inquiries  may 
be  started  as  to  what  is  taking  place.  Most,  if  not  all  of  the 
pupils  will  know  that  the  moon,  in  common  with  the  sun  and 
with  the  myraids  of  stars  among  which  the  sun  and  moon  move, 
rises  in  the  east  and  sets  in  the  west  daily,  and  they  will  know  that 
the  cause  of  this  apparent  motion  is  the  earth's  revolution.  But 
most  of  them  will  be  surprised  to  find  that  the  moon  moves  east 
among  the  stars.  These  observations  may  be  carried  on  and -dis- 
cussed by  the  pupils  until  they  make  out  for  themselves  that  this 
is  the  motion  of  the  moon  around  the  earth. 

The  time  of  revolution  may  be  determined  by  noting  the 
date  when  the  moon  passes  some  "fixed  star"  until  it  passes 
it  again. 

If  the  pupils  understand  circles  and  degrees,  a  simple 
apparatus  can  be  arranged  by  which  they  can  determine  approxi- 
mately the  number  of  degrees  it  moves  in  every  twenty-four 
hours. 


THE   MOON  169 

Provide  a  rod  about  four  feet  long,  sharpened  at  one  end, 
so  that  it  may  be  thrust  into  the  ground  (a  tripod  is  more  con- 
venient, but  more  difficult  to  make). 

To  the  upper  end  attach  a  platform  of  board  about  four  inches 
square,  on  which  to  place  a  level,  by  means  of  which  the  plat- 
form is  to  be  made  horizontal.  A  small  iron  spirit  level  can  be 
(Obtained  for  fifteen  cents. 

On  the  edge  of  the  platform  is  tacked  a  thick  cardboard  with 
a  semicircle  drawn  on  its  outer  side.  The  diameter  of  the  circle 
lies  on  a  level  with  the  surface  of  the  platform.  The  semicircle 
jis  marked  off  in  degrees  as  carefully  as  possible,  and  marked 
from  o  degrees  to  180  degrees,  the  goih  degree  being  on  the  end  of 
the  radius  exactly  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the  platform. 
With  this  apparatus,  using  pins  as  sights,  the  position  in  degrees 
of  the  moon  above  the  horizon  may  be  read  for  a  few  successive 
evenings  at  the  same  hour.  See  if  the  rate  of  movement,  thus 
determined,  corresponds  to  the  rate  calculated  by  the  obser- 
vation of  how  many  days  the  moon  takes  to  make  a  revolution 
(360  degrees). 

Another  line  of  questioning  to  be  pursued  is  that  in 
relation  to  the  cause  of  the  changing  of  the  illuminated  part. 
Pupils  may,  in  their  own  way,  prepare  models  to  illustrate  this. 

Why  is  one  side  of  the  moon  always  turned  toward  the  earth? 
How  long  is  the  moon's  day? 

Children  from  ten  to  twelve  years  of  age  have  worked  out 
all  the  above  with  no  trouble  except  the  setting  of  the  work. 
This  work,  of  course,  must  be  given  out  for  the  pupils  to  do  at 
home  of  evenings  but  if  the  teacher  can  meet  them,  some  even- 
ings, much  more  interest  might  be  aroused.  A  small  telescope, 
or  even  a  good  spy  glass,  will  add  greatly  to  the  interest. 

After  the  above  work,  the  pupil  can  more  successfully  under- 
stand the  motions  of  the  earth. 


1 70  NATURE   STUDY 

[NOTE. — If  the  pupils  do  not  know  that  the  "  fixed  stars  " 
maintain  their  same  relative  position,  they  may  be  set  to  watch 
any  group  of  them  for  successive  periods.  The  motions  of  some 
of  the  planets  among  the  other  stars  may,  later,  be  made  subjects 
of  observation.] 


Pressure  of  Air  and  Liquids. 

The  previous  lessons  on  air  and  water  will  have  brought  out 
questions  requiring  some  knowledge  of  the  pressure  the-v  exert* 
and  the  consequent  phenomena.  It  is  perhaps  better  to  begin 
with  water.  Bodies  floating  in  water  may  be  taken  as  a  starting 
point.  Why  do  they  float?  Why  do  some  float  with  more  of 
the  mass  above  the  water  than  others,  while  some  sink?  What 
happens  to  the  same  floating  bodies  in  liquids  of  different  densi- 
ties, e.  g.,  lighter  or  heavier  liquids? 

These  questions  may  be  made  the  guide  to  a  series  of  experi- 
mental lessons  with  grades  above  the  fourth. 

The  last  of  the  above  questions  is  a  good  one  to  begin  with. 
For  the  lesson  there  will  be  necessary:  A  small  wooden  rod  one- 
half  inch  or  less  in  diameter,  and  about  five  inches  in  length; 
some  small  nails,  and  a  piece  of  copper  wire  for  weighting  one  end 
of  the  rod;  two  fruit  jars,  one  filled  with  water,  the  other  with  a 
strong  solution  of  salt;  some  small  blocks  of  wood;  and  some 
corks.  The  lesson  may  begin  with  the  question  of  how  the  things 
will  float  in  two  liquids,  water  and  salt  solution.  If  the  pupils 
can  be  led  to  invent  an  apparatus  to  test  the  difference,  so  much 
the  better. 

This  may  be  done  by  first  trying  the  blocks  of  wood  or  the 
corks.  It  will  soon  appear  that  from  their  awkward  shapes  and 
instability  in  the  water,  they  can  not  give  good  results.  Then 
some  one  will  be  sure  to  suggest  a  method  good  enough.  Most 
likely  the  rod  of  wood  loaded  at  one  end  will  be  invented  by  the 
class.  If  notj  it  may  now  be  brought  out,  and  will  be  appreciated. 
It  is  best  not  to  have  the  rod  loaded  ready  for  the  experiment, 
but  reserve  for  the  class  the  loading  the  of  rod  just  right  to  make  it 
float  upright  in  the  two  liquids,  and  the  marking  of  the  scale  on  it. 
With  this  now  ready,  have  them  test  the  liquids.  They  find  that 


172  NATURE    STUDY 

the  rod  floats  higher  in  the  heavier  liquid.  Now  make  the  mix- 
tures of  the  water  and  salt  solution,  and  have  them  predict  how 
the  rod  will  stand,  then  verify  the  prediction. 

Now  other  liquids  may  be  tested  and  compared  with 
water;  e.  g.  milk,  kerosene,  or  a  solution  of  salts  other  than 
table  salt. 

The  apparatus  may  be  varied  by  preparing  other  forms  of 
floats,  e.  g.,  a  long,  narrow  test  tube  with  sand,  shot,  or  nails  in 
the  bottom  to  act  as  ballast.  In  the  tube  may  be  placed  a  paper 
scale.  If  a  lactometer  or  alcoholometer,  or  other  form  of  hydro, 
meter  (see  text-book  on  physics)  can  be  borrowed  to  show,  and  can 
be  made  use  of,  the  value  of  the  lesson  will  be  greater.  But  the 
pupils  will  see  that  none  of  these  instruments  is  anything  more 
than  their  wooden  rod  with  a  scale. 

An  egg  will  float  in  strong  brine  and  sink  in  water,  and  thus 
is  used  as  a  hydrometer.  These  experiments  extended  bring  the 
phenomena  of  floating  clearly  before  the  pupils. 

Next  the  question  of  what  makes  the  bodies  float  may  be 
taken  up.  At  the  start  do  not  tell  the  pupils  that  it  is  "the  weight  of 
the  water  displaced."  This  is  misleading,  and,  once  given,  seems 
to  become  a  sort  of  cant  phrase  into  which  it  is  hard  to  put  the 
real  meaning.  Later  this  truth  may  be  seen  and  verified.  While 
the  whole  mathematical  explanation  can  not  be  gone  into,  the 
simple  fact  that  floating  is  due  to  the  upward  pressure  of  the 
water  may  be  clearly  seen. 

Show  the  pupils  that  when  a  body  is  placed  in  the  water,  the 
water  presses  against  the  whole  surface.  A  bucket  pushed  down 
would  show  the  pressure  if  holes  were  bored  in  the  bottom  and 
sides.  A  rubber  boot  placed  in  a  bucket  shows  the  pressure  by 
the  collapsing  of  the  sides.  A  bottle  filled  with  air  thrust  mouth 
down  will  show  that  the  air  is  pressed  upon  by  the  water.  In  a 
floating  body  the  pressure  against  the  sides  takes  no  part  in 
holding  the  body  up,  but  only  the  upward  pressure  does  so. 


PRESSURE    OF     AIR    AND    LIQUIDS  173 

The  children  will  readily  see  tnat  the  pressure  of  a  liquid  is 
due  to  its  weight,  and  consequently  is  greater  in  the  heavier 
liquids.  It  will  be  very  interesting  to  show  a  very  light  liquid, 
like  gasoline  (do  not  use  it  near  a  light),  and  the  heavy  mercury. 

From  liquids  it  is  easy  to  pass  to  air.  In  previous  lessons 
air  has  been  shown  to  be  "  something,"  and  consequently  has 
weight  and  exerts  pressure.  Let  the  children  devise  means  of 
showing  this  to  be  true. 

Put  experiments  like  this  in  the  form  of  questions:  A  glass 
of  water  evenly  full  is  covered  with  a  piece  of  paper,  and  then 
suddenly  inverted,  the  paper  being  held  on  by  the  palm  of  the 
hand.  When  the  hand  is  removed,  the  water  will  be  kept  in  the 
glass  by  the  pressure  of  the  air. 

"Sucking''  water  up  a  tube  is  removing  part  of  the  pressure  of 
the  air  above  the  water  in  the  tube.  The  pressure  of  the  air  on 
the  water  outside  of  the  tube  pushes  the  water  up  the  tube. 

Enlarging  the  chest  in  respiration  makes  a  larger  space. 
The  pressure  of  the  outside  air  crowds  in  and  inflates  the  lungs 
to  fill  that  space. 

The  toy  called  a  "  sucker  " — a  leather  disc  with  a  string  in 
the  center — illustrates  this  further;  the  pump  and  the  siphon  also. 

From  pressure  of  air,  we  may  pass  to  experiments  on 
bodies  floating  in  the  air,  as  balloons, — toy  balloons,  either  paper 
filled  with  hot  air  or  rubber  filled  with  a  gas  lighter  than  air. 
Next  we  may  take  up  currents  in  the  air  and  water. 

It  has  been  seen  that  heat  expands  water  and  air.  These  are 
then  lighter.  The  warm  water  rises  in  the  cold,  and  the  warm 
air  in  the  cooler.  (The  lessons  on  currents  in  air  and  water  may 
now  be  referred  to  or  they  may  be  arranged  to  follow  these 
lessons.) 


How  Insects  Breathe. 

The  familiar  grasshoppers,  or  locusts  as  they  are  better  called, 
can  be  found  along  roadsides,  and  in  pastures  and  meadows. 
Have  some  energetic  and  interested  small  boy  'catch  alive  and 
bring  to  the  school  as  many  live  locusts  as  there  are  children  in 
the  nature  study  class.  Any  species  of  locust  will  do,  the  speci- 
mens need  not  all  be  of  the  same  species  even.  The  locust  hunter 
should  carry  a  small  closed  wooden  or  paste-board  box  with  a 
hole  in  the  top  just  large  enough  to  admit  a  single  locust.  If  he 
can  take  with  him  a  butterfly  net  he  may  be  able  to  get  his  speci- 
mens in  shorter  time,  tho  the  usual  small  boy  can  catch  the  most 
active  sort  of  locust  without  artificial  equipment. 

Let  each  child  of  the  class  have  a  live  locust.  It  should  be 
held  so  that  the  long,  strong  hind  legs  are  kept  quiet.  When  the 
locust  has  stopped  struggling  to  free  itself  and  is  apparently 
motionless,  let  all  look  sharply  for  any  signs  of  movement.  Give 
especial  attention  to  the  hinder  half  of  the  body. 

Is  there  any  movement  here  ?  Yes,  a  distinct  tho  slight, 
regularly-recurring  contracting  and  swelling  of  the  body.  What 
is  the  locust  doing  ?  Breathing.  Notice  this  movement  of  the 
body  very  carefully  in  all  its  details.  What  parts  of  the  body 
surface  move  the  most  ?  Of  what  is  this  part  of  the  locust's  body 
composed  ?  Of  a  series  of  rings  or  segments  with  distinct  lines 
separating  them.  Note  that  the  under  surface  of  the  body  is 
separated  from  the  lateral  arid  upper  parts  of  the  body  by  a  little 
longitudinal  furrow  on  each  side.  It  is  at  these  furrows  that  the 
breathing  motion  is  most  pronounced.  Feel  the  surface  of  the 
body;  it  is  rather  hard.  The  outer  skin,  or  surface  of  the  grass- 
hopper's body  is  composed  of  a  thin  layer  of  a  horny  substance 
which  serves  as  a  sort  of  coat  of  armor  and  protects  the  soft  parts 
inside.  But  just  at  the  furrows  the  body  wall  is  thin  and  soft. 


HOW   INSECTS   BREATHE  1 75 

The  furrows  are  in  fact,  a  sort  of  long  soft  hinge  by  means  of 
which  the  hard  lower  wall  of  the  body  can  be  moved  away  from 
or  towards  the  hard  upper  wall,  and  the  size  of  the  body  thus 
made  larger  or  smaller.  This  making  the  body  larger  or  smaller 
is  the  breathing  motion. 

Does  the  air  which  the  locust  breathes  pass  in  thru  the. 
mouth  ?  If  not,  where  does  the  air  pass  in  and  out  of  the  body  ? 
Unfortunately  the  children  will  not  be  able  to  prove  that  the 
locust  does  not  breathe  thru  its  mouth — it  does  not:  nor  that  the 
air  does  pass  in  and  out  of  the  body  thru  a  series  of  tiny  holes  on 
each  side  of  the  body — which  it  does.  It  may  be  readily  seen, 
however,  that  on  each  side  of  each  body  ring  or  segment  there  is 
just  above  the  long  lateral  furrow,  and  near  the  front  edge  of  the 
segment,  a  small  spot.  This  is  a  minute  opening  in  the  body 
wall,  and  is  a  breathing  pore  or  spiracle.  Thru  these  holes,  each 
time  the  body  expands,  the  air  passes  into  the  body,  and  out  of 
them  the  air  comes  each  time  the  body  contracts.  On  the  inside 
of  the  body  leading  from  these  breathing  openings  are  small  tubes 
which  carry  the  air  into  two  air  trunks,  which  run  longitudinally 
along  each  side  of  the  body  and  extend  in  most  insects  for  almost 
the  entire  length  of  the  body.  From  these  main  trunks  arise 
many  subordinate  trunks,  these  in  turn  subdivide  into  numerous 
finer  branches  which  branch  again  and  again,  so  that  every  part 
of  the  body  is  reached  by  these  air  tubes,  and  all  the  organs  and 
tissues  of  the  body  thus  directly  supplied  with  oxygen. 

These  air  tubes  or  trachea,  can  be  Ireadily  shown  to  the  class. 
The  teacher  should  prepare  a  simple  dissection  of  some  large 
insect — a  caterpillar  makes  an  especially  good  object — revealing 
the  main  longitudinal  trunks  and  some  of  the  branches.  Make 
the  dissection  as  follows:  Glue,  with  water  proof  glue,  a  piece  of 
sheet  cork  to  the  bottom  of  a  small,  shallow  tin  dish  or  earthen- 
ware saucer.  Pin  the  caterpillar,  which  has  been  killed  by 
chloroform,  outstretched  with  back  uppermost  to  the  cork.  With 


176  NATURE   STUDY 

fine  scissors  or  sharp  scalpel  or  knife  cut  open  the  skin  along  the 
median  line  of  the  back  from  end  to  end  of  the  body.  Spread  the 
skin  out  on  each  side  of  the  body  and  pin  the  cut  edges  down. 
Then  pour  into  the  dish  enough  clear  water  to  cover  the  specimen, 
and  with  needles  and  forceps  pull  apart  the  white  masses  of  fat 
until  the  conspicuous  dark  longitudinal  tracheal  trunks  are 
exposed.  The  air  tubes  will  appear  either  dark  or  shining 
silvery.  All  air  tubes  (tracheae)  are  finely  transversely  lined  or 
striated.  These  fine  transverse  striae  are  really  a  continuous 
elastic  thread  which  runs  spirally  around  on  the  inner  surface  of 
the  air  tube  and  which  by  its  elasticity,  holds  the  tube  open.  A 
bit  of  one  of  these  large  air  tubes  cut  out,  and  mounted  in  a  drop 
of  water  or  glycerine  on  a  glass  slide,  should  be  examined  with  a 
magnifier,  so  as  to  see  this  characteristic  transversely  striated 
appearance. 

In  the  case  of  other  animals,  not  insects^  the  air  which  i& 
breathed  in  is  carried  by  short  tubes  to  an  organ  (the  lungs) 
where  it  meets  the  blood  and  gives  up  its  oxygen  to  it.  The 
blood  then  carries  thru  the  blood  tubes  (arteries)  this  oxygen  to 
all  parts  of  the  body.  But  with  insects,  as  we  have  seen,  the  air 
is  carried  in  tubes  of  its  own  all  over  the  body.  This  is 
one  of  the  most  important  physiological  peculiarities  of  insects. 

All  insects  which  live  in  the  air,  i.  e.,  which  do  not  live  in 
water,  breathe  as  the  locust  does.  That  is,  they  breathe  thru 
small  holes  which  are  situated  in  a  single  row  on  each  side  of 
the  body.  But  many  insects  live  in  water.  How  do  they 
breathe  ? 

An  account  of  the  manner  of  breathing  of  several  water 
insects  is  given  in  the  chapter  "Some  Water  Insects." 


177 
Birds. 

Get  from  the  market  a  freshly  killed  fowl  or  pigeon.  Have 
the  pupils  examine  the  various  parts  of  the  bird,  especially  the 
bill  and  feet  and  feathers.  (For  a  lesson  on  feathers  see  pp.i4i~4). 
Note  the  different  kinds  of  feathers,  namely,down,  contour  feathers, 
and  quill  feathers,  and  note  the  distribution  and  arrangement  of 
the  different  kinds.  The  quill  feathers  are  in  the  wings  and 
tail  only.  Note  the  third  eyelid  (nictitating  membrane).  This 
can  be  especially  well  seen  in  a  live  bird,  preferably  a  large  eyed 
bird.  This  third  eyelid  instead  of  working  vertically  sweeps 
horizontally  or  obliquely  across  the  eyeball  from  the  side  next  to 
the  beak  to  the  opposite.  If  you  menace  the  eye  of  a  live  bird 
with  finger  or  pencil  this  nictitating  membrane  rushes  across  the 
ball  to  protect  it.  Examine  the  bill.  Note  the  absence  of  teeth. 
The  earliest  birds,  now  known  to  us  only  as  fossils,  had  teeth. 
The  bills  or  beaks  of  birds  vary  a  great  deal  as  we  shall  see  when 
we  come  to  examine  other  kinds  of  birds.  The  two  parts  of  the 
bill  are  the  upper  and  lower  mandibles  or  jaws,  and  both  jaws 
are  movable.  With  us  the  upper  jaw  is  immovable.  The  motion 
of  the  upper  jaw  is  freest  and  most  extensive  in  the  parrots. 
Note  the  horny  character  and  the  evident  strength  of  the  bill.  In. 
the  pigeon  there  is  a  soft  swollen  part  on  the  upper  mandible,  in 
which  the  nostrils  are  situated.  Examine  the  feet.  How  many 
toes  are  there  ?  Some  birds  have  only  three  toes  (the  plovers, 
certain  woodpeckers,  and  others).  The  ostrich  has  only  two  toes. 
Note  the  arrangement  of  the  toes,  and  their  shape.  The  arrange- 
ment and  the  shape  and  appearance  of  the  toes  varies  much 
among  birds  (see  later).  Note  the  hard  nails;  they  are  horny 
like  the  bill. 

With  this  simple  knowledge  of  some  of  the  parts  of  the 
chicken  or  pigeon,  have  the  children  watch  the  live  chickens  or 


17°  NATURE   STUDY 

pigeons  at  home.  If  in  a  city,  have  a  live  fowl  or  pigeon  in  a 
cage  in  the  schoolroom.  Have  them  see  how  the  bird  uses  its 
bill  and  feet.  Let  them  find  out  how  the  structure  of  the  bird 
fits  it  for  its  special  kind  of  life. 

To  study  birds  further  it  will  be  well  to  have  a  small  set  or 
collection  of  prepared  skins  of  some  of  the  common  birds  of  var- 
ious families.  In  order  to  see  how  the  general  structure  and  the 
special  character  of  the  wings,  tail,  bill,  legs  and  feet  of  various 
birds  vary  in  correlation  with  the  various  habits  and  living  con- 
ditions of  the  birds  it  will  be  necessary  to  be  able  to  examine,  in 
hand,  different  birds.  "Bird-skins"  which  can  be  bought  for  about 
twenty-five  cents  each  (the  common  birds)  are  better  than  mounted 
or  stuffed  birds  which  are  expensive  and  are  very  rarely  true  to 
life  in  shape  and  attitude.  The  skins  can  be  got,  perhaps,  from 
some  boy  collector  of  the  neighborhood.  These  skins  can  be  con- 
veniently kept,  can  be  handled  readily  without  harming  them, 
and  do  not  pretend  to  imitate  the  bird's  shape  or  attitude.  But 
they  do  allow  us  to  see  the  exact  character  of  the  various  exter- 
nal parts. 

Make  the  pupils  acquainted  by  out-of-door  lessons  with  the 
common  birds  of  the  school  yard  and  neighborhood.  Try  to  get 
acquainted  with  birds  representing  some  of  the  different  orders 
and  families  so  that  various  kinds  of  food  habits  and  physiologi- 
cal characters  will  be  represented.  Try  to  have  prepared  skins 
of  most  of  the  birds  selected  for  study.  Good  birds  to  begin  with 
are  the  robin,  some  swallow,  the  English  sparrow,  a  blackbird,  a 
jay,  the  bee-martin,  a  humming  bird,  a  common  woodpecker,  a 
hawk,  an  owl,  a  mourning  dove,  a  quail,  a  sandpiper  or  snipe  a 
mud-hen  or  rail,  a  duck  and  a  gull.  The  prepared  sking  of 
twenty  different  kinds  of  birds  selected  so  as  to  represent  differ- 
ent large  groups  present  an  extremely  varied  and  interesting  lot 
of  bills  and  feet  and  colors  and  patterns,  and  these  same  birds 
observed  alive  out-of-doors  will  make  the  pupils  acquainted  with 


BIRDS  179 

a  host  of  different  habits  of  food-getting,  flight,  song,  nesting, 
perching,  walking  and  swimming,  etc.  The  teacher  should  con- 
stantly strive  to  lead  the  pupils  to  see  the  correlation  of  the 
structure  of  bills  and  feet  and  other 'parts  of  the  body  with  the 
special  kinds  of  uses  to  which  these  parts  are  put. 

Have  the  children  observe  the  running  and  scratching  and 
seed  eating  habits  of  the  quail  and  domestic  fowl,  and  note  that 
the  structure  of  legs  and  feet  and  bill  fits  these  parts  for  such 
habits.  The  hawk  and  owl  are  raptorial  birds,  or  birds  of  prey. 
They  catch  small  animals  alive,  and  tear  and  rend  them  with 
bill  and  feet  and  feed  on  their  bodies.  Examine  the  great  hooked 
beak  and  the  strong  talons  of  the  hawk  and  owl.  The  wood- 
pecker bores  into  hard  wood  in  search  of  insect  grubs  for  food; 
note  its  chisel-like  bill.  It  uses  its  tail  as  a  sort  of  prop  to  help 
support  its  body  when  clinging  vertically  to  the  limb  of  a  tree. 
Note  the  very  stiff  sharp-pointed  tail  feathers.  How  are  the  toes 
of  the  woodpecker  arranged  ?  Of  what  use  to  it  is  this  unusual 
arrangement  ?  If  a  freshly  killed  woodpecker  can  be  examined, 
note  especially  the  structure  of  the  tongue;  it  is  so  constructed 
and  set  that  it  can  be  darted  far  out  with  great  force  to  pierce 
(it  is  sharply  pointed)  and  capture  insects.  The  swallow  rarely 
walks;  its  only  mode  of  locomotion  is  its  swift  flight.  Note  its 
short,  small  weak  feet,  ill  adapted  to  secure  foothold  and  very 
badly  formed  for  walking.  Its  food  is  small  insects  caught  while 
flying  in  the  air.  Note  its  very  wide  mouth,  and  tiny  weak  bill. 
Note  its  long,  narrow,  powerful  wings.  The  sandpipers  and  snipe 
wade  about  in  marshy  places  or  on  the  muddy  banks  of  small 
ponds.  Their  food  is  found  in  the  mud  and  has  to  be  probed  for. 
Note  the  long  slender  featherless  legs  adapted  for  wading,  and  the 
long  slender  bill  fit  for  probing  the  mud.  The  duck  swims,  and 
gets  its  food  by  taking  into  its  mouth  water  and  thin  mud  in 
which  there  may  be  tiny  water  animals.  The  duck's  bill  is  broad 
and  scoop-like  and  provided  with  a  strainer  at  each  side  which 


l8o  NATURK  STUDY 

lets  the  water  run  out  but  retains  the  food.  Its  feet  are  webbed 
to  make  swimming  paddles  of  them.  Similarly  the  teacher  should 
lead  the  pupils  to  look  for  something  in  the  make-up  of  each  bird 
that  especially  fits  it  for  its  particular  kind  of  life. 

The  colors  and  patterning  of  birds  are  very  beautiful  and 
interesting.  Note  that  in  many  birds  the  males  are  more  brightly 
colored  and  strikingly  marked  than  the  females.  The  orioles 
and  tanagers  and  red-winged  blackbirds  and  quail  are  good 
examples  of  this.  The  colors  and  markings  of  birds  are  believed 
to  serve  as  ornaments  and  also  as  recognition  marks  so  that 
others  of  the  kind  can  recognize  their  comrades.  The  colors  and 
pattern  often  harmonize  so  well  with  the  usual  surroundings  of 
the  bird  that  they  serve  to  conceal  the  bird  when  at  rest  and  thus 
protect  it  from  its  enemies.  A  quail  crouching  on  the  ground  is 
almost  indistinguishable  from  the  brown  leaves  and  soil  about  it. 
The  colors  are  produced  in  two  ways,  namely,  by  the  presence  of 
pigment,  and  by  the  reflection  and  interference  of  the  light  rays. 
In  this  latter  way  are  produced  the  metallic  or  irridescent  colors, 
which  change  as  the  angle  of  the  light  is  changed. 

The  nesting  of  birds  and  the  number  and  patterning  of  the 
eggs  are  interesting  subjects  for  observation.  The  mourning  dove 
makes  a  very  slight  nest  of  a  few  twigs;  the  robin  makes  a  strong 
deep  cup,  rough  outside,  but  softly  lined  within;  the  oriole  builds 
an  elaborate  hanging  cradle.  Among  some  birds  only  the  female 
works  at  nest  building;  among  others  both  sexes  take  part  in  the 
nest  building.  Some  birds  lay  but  two  or  three  eggs  in  a  clutch, 
some  a  dozen  or  more.  Some  birds  rear  but  one  brood  a  year, 
some  several  broods.  In  most  birds  it  is  the  female  only  who 
sits  on  the  nest  to  incubate  the  eggs.  With  some,  however,  the 
male  takes  its  turn  in  "setting."  Have  those  children  who  have 
opportunity  to  watch  pigeons  while  nesting  find  out  that  this  is 
true  in  the  case  of  the  pigeon.  With  some  of  the  plovers  the 
males  do  all  the  incubating.  A  strange  bird  called  the  hornbill 


BIRDS  l8l 

makes  its  nest  in  a  hollow  in  a  tree.  The  female  sits  on  the  eggs, 
and  the  male  walls  up  the  opening  to  the  nest,  nearly  completely. 
He  leaves  only  a  small  opening  thru  which  he  feeds  her.  The 
female  and  the  eggs  are  thus  protected  from  enemies  during  the 
nesting  time.  There  is  much  difference  in  the  time  of  nesting  of 
different  birds.  Most  of  the  hawks  and  owls  lay  eggs  very  early 
in  the  year,  in  January  or  February  even,  while  many  of  the 
song  birds  do  not  nest  until  late  in  the  spring  or  until  summer. 
The  children  should  find  out  as  much  as  possible  about  the  nest- 
ing of  some  of  the  common  and  readily  observed  birds. 

The  songs  of  birds  offer  an  interesting  field  of  observation. 
What  birds  have  songs?  What  one  calls  or  cries?  Some  birds 
which  have  only  sharp  cries  during  most  of  the  year  have  varied 
and  elaborate  songs  during  the  mating  season.  What  are  the 
cries  and  songs  for?  Note  cries  to  warn  mates  or  young  of  the 
approach  of  enemies,  and  cries  to  call  the  young. 

The  bird  fauna  of  any  locality  is  made  up  of  (a)  all  year 
residents,  or  kinds  of  birds  which  live  there  permanently,  (b) 
summer  residents,  or  birds  which  come  in  the  spring,  mate  and 
breed  there  and  leave  in  the  autumn,  (c)  winter  residents  or  birds 
which  come  in  the  fall  and  stay  thru  the  winter,  going  elsewhere 
in  the  spring  to  breed,  (d)  migrants,  or  birds  which  pass  thru  in 
the  spring  and  again  in  the  autumn  making  but  a  short  stay 
at  either  of  these  seasnos,  and  finally  (e)  stragglers  or  birds  which 
normally  always  live  elsewhere  but  occasionally  straggle  into  the 
region.  Of  the  many  kinds  of  birds  which  may  be  observed  to 
occur  in  any  locality  usually  about  a  fifth  are  really  all-year 
residents  in  the  region.  The  summer  residents  (as  opposed  to 
all-year  residents)  will  include  enough  more  to  bring  the  total  of 
birds  which  breed  in  a  certain  region  to  about  half  the  total  number 
of  birds  which  may  occur  in  the  region.  The  other  half  of  the  total 
number  is  composed  principally  of  migrants. 

Older  children  can  be  got  to  keep  a  little  note-book,   or  the 


1 82  NATURE  STUDY 

school  as  a  whole  might  keep  a  note-book  containing  records  of  the 
various  times  of  the  year  when  individuals  of  those  kinds  of  birds 
are  seen  which  are  known  to  the  children.  Keep  a  list  of  all  the 
kinds  of  birds  (which  the  teacher  knows)  which  make  nests,  with 
the  times  of  their  nesting.  When  are  the  times  of  the  first 
appearance  of  the  migrants  with  which  teacher  and  children  can 
get  acquainted? 

Other  good  fields  of  observations  on  birds  are  the  moulting, 
the  care  and  feeding  of  the  nestlings,  the  manner  of  flight,  the 
sleep,  etc. 

A  suggestive  book  about  birds  is  Baskett's  "The  Story  of 
the  Birds"  (Appleton).  Keeler's  "Bird  Notes  Afield"  (Elder  & 
Shephard,  San  Francisco)  contains  much  information,  popularly 
told,  about  California  birds.  It  also  contains  a  key  for  determin- 
ing the  land  birds  of  California.  Coues'  Key  to  North  American 
Birds,  is  the  best  book  for  teachers  who  wish  to  make  a  more 
serious  study  of  birds. 


183 


APPENDIX 

A  Provisional  Course  in  Nature  Study  Arranged 

by  Grades. 

It  IB  with  great  hesitation  that  an  outline  of  a  course  of  nature  study 
is  presented.  The  fear  is  that  such  a  course  might  be  considered  as  being 
regarded  by  the  authors  of  this  book  as  having  any  virtue  in  it  as  such. 
A  course  agreed  upon  and  adopted  is  often  apt  to  have  its  form  of  arrange- 
ment clothed  with  an  importance,  or  even  a  certain  authority,  which  its 
mere  form  in  no  way  possesses.  It  is  emphatically  insisted  upon  that 
many  other  arrangements  of  the  subjects  which  follow  here  would  seem 
to  be  equally  good,  or  even  better  than  this  suggested  course,  and  further, 
that  no  special  arrangement  is  essential  or  should  long  persist. 

However,  it  is  a  matter  of  convenience  in  execution,  where  there  is  a 
large  community  of  schools  of  many  grades,  to  arrange  subjects  to  be 
taken  up  by  the  various  grades  at  various  times.  Such  an  arrangement 
renders  aid  in  choice  of  subjects,  prevents  confusion  and  undue  repeti- 
tion, and  secures  to  all  the  schools  provision  for  the  work. 

The  arrangement  given  below  is  based  on  the  experience  of  the 
teachers  of  the  various  schools  of  Oakland  for  the  past  two  years,  under 
the  suggestions  of  one  of  the  authors  and  under  the  supervision  of  Miss 
E.  B.  McFadden.  It  includes  only  what  has  been  proved  by  actual  trial 
can  be  accomplished  in  each  grade  easily. 

What  has  succeeded  in  this  community  of  schools  should  be  equally 
suggestive  in  single  schools. 

To  secure  a  oomewhat  systematic  planning  and  supervision  of  the 
field  of  work,  and  at  the  same  time  the  great  liberty  in  choice  to  the 
teacher  so  absolutely  essential  in  this  work,  the  subjects  are  arranged 
under  two  heads:  (1)  Prescribed;  (2)  Elective. 

Both  the  Prescribed  and  Elective  subjects  are  selected  from  what 
experience  has  taught  can  be  handled  in  the  grades  to  which  they  are 
assigned,  and  the  material  for  which  it  is  known  can  be  obtained  at  the 
time  at  which  it  is  placed. 


1 84  NATURE   STUDY 

The  whole  amount  of  work  required  in  each  grade  consists  of  all  the 
subjects  falling  under  the  head  of  Prescribed,  and  a  given  number  of 
those  under  the  head  of  Elective. 

The  subjects  placed  under  the  head  of  Prescribed  are  not  chosen  be- 
cause they  are  thought  to  be  the  more  important  ones.  They  represent 
those  which  the  experience  of  the  past  two  years  of  a  free  selection  on  the 
part  of  the  teachers  from  a  fairly  extensive  list  shows  are  more  usually 
chosen  by  the  teachers.  They  are  those  with  which  the  greater  majority 
have  been  successful.  Future  experience  on  the  part  of  teachers  would, 
no  doubt,  very  much  modify  this  list.  Indeed,  it  would  be  inadvisable 
to  retain  this  list  long  unchanged,  on  account  of  a  certain  formality  which 
might  soon  become  attached  to  it. 

The  subjects  placed  under  the  head  of  Elective  allow  a  range  of 
choice  on  the  part  of  the  teachers,  which  permits  the  taking  advantage 
of  preferences  on  the  part  of  teachers  and  pupils,  and  of  favorable  occa- 
sions and  conditions.  This  list  could  be  indefinitely  extended  with  profit. 
It  is  here  simply  limited  to  subjects  which  have  already  been  used  in  the 
schools,  and  for  which  material  can  be  readily  obtained. 

To  avoid  too  much  repetition  of  work  in  different  grades,  it  is  advis- 
able to  confine  selections  to  the  list  as  provided,  unless  subjects  are  taken 
which  are  not  in  the  whole  course.  Teachers  should  be  encouraged  to 
introduce,  as  time  and  opportunity  may  permit,  as  many  lessons  as  possi- 
ble on  subjects  not  specifically  given  in  this  course,  and  to  make  note  of 
their  experience  and  report  their  success.  The  subjects  outlined  need 
not  be  taken  in  their  order,  but  selected  according  to  season,  or  as  class 
needs  dictate. 


First  Grade. 
PRESCRIBED. 

SEEDS.  Dispersal.  Most  common  forms  as  in  lesson  on  Dandelion.  Ar- 
rangement in  seed-case.  Apparatus  for  dispersal.  Collection  of 
seeds  to  show  method  of  dispersal. 

Germination  and  growth  in  several  forms  of  seeds.  Conditions  neces- 
sary for  germination  and  growth.  How  the  plant  breaks  out  of 
the  seed;  how  it  gets  out  of  the  ground.  Growth  of  roots;  of 
leaves,  —  the  one  seeking  food  from  earth,  the  others  from  air. 
Growth  of  roots  from  cuttings,  — air-roots. 

All  the  phenomena  of  plant  life  easily  understood  by  the  children  of 
this  grade. 


APPENDIX  185 

MOTHS,  BUTTERFLIES,  CATERPILLARS.  Breeding-cages  and  food;  egg,  size 
and  development;  growth  of  caterpillars;  feeding  and  moulting; 
cocoons,  or  chrysalides,  —  how  made,  of  what.  Life  habits  of 
adult  moth  or  butterfly. 

DEVELOPMENT  of  eggs  of  toads,  frogs,  or  salamanders. 

DEVELOPMENT  of  mosquito  from  egg  to  adult. 

ELECTIVE. 

SELECT  two  subjects  from  the  Elective  List  No.  1  (see  posted). 
SELECT  one  subject  from  an  outside  source. 


Second  Grade. 
PRESCRIBED. 

Use  the  same  topics  given  for  the  First  Grade,  extending  the  observations. 
and  varying  the  problems  given  to  be  solved.  Add  to  this  list:  — 

FUNGI.  Their  manner  of  growth;  the  various  forms  as  given  in  the  lessons; 
positions  in  which  found;  their  spore  surfaces;  discharge  of  spores; 
growth  of  spores,  etc. 

ANTS.  Life  history  and  habits  studied  from  a  nest  kept  in  the  school- 
room, also  by  observations  in  the  field. 

ELECTIVE. 

SELECT  two  subjects  irom  tne  Elective  List  No.  1. 
SELECT  one  subject  from  an  outside  source. 


Third  Grade. 

PRESCRIBED. 

GRAPHITE.  Properties,  uses,  comparison  with  lead  and  a  few  other  min- 
erals. 

LEAD  PENCILS.    Structure,  grades,  account  of  the  making,  use. 

POND  LIFE.  Jar  aquaria,  with  some  of  the  water  insects;  life,  habits, 
motions,  etc. 

COVERINGS  OF  ANIMALS.  Feathers,  — structure,  form,  uses;  scales;  hoofs; 
claws;  fur  of  different  animals.  All  to  be  seen  as  adapted  to  the 
conditions  of  the  life  of  the  different  animals. 


1 86  NATURE  STUDY 

DURING  SEED-GROWING  time,  plant  seeds  not  before  studied,  such  as  sun- 
flower, castor-oil  bean,  buckeye,  walnut,  acorn,  almond,  or  any 
other  seeds  brought  in  by  the  pupils  for  their  study.  Use  the  di- 
rections given  under  the  same  subject  for  the  first  grade. 

ELECTIVE. 

SELECT  two  subjects  from  Elective  List  No.  1. 
SELECT  one  subject  from  an  outside  source. 


Fourth  Grade. 

PRESCRIBED. 

EVAPORATION.  Liquids.  Compare  water,  alcohol,  gasoline,  glycerine,  mo- 
lasses. 

Show  existence  of  vapor  by  use  of  ether,  alcohol,  chloroform. 

Show  that  heat  is  used  up  during  evaporation. 

Evaporation  of  solids,  such  as  camphor  and  iodine. 

Condensation. 

Show  sources  of  vapor  of  water  by  condensation  from  breath,  surface 
of  skin,  under  surface  of  leaf,  etc. 

Distill  water  from  a  flask. 

SOLUTION.  Solution  of  various  common  substances  that  will  readily  dis- 
solve in  water,  such  as  salt;  those  that  will  not  dissolve  readily, 
as  camphor,  potassium,  bichromate,  copper  sulphate,  and  the  like; 
those  that  do  not  dissolve  perceptibly. such  as  whiting,  starch,  etc. 

Evaporation  of  water  to  regain  substance,  formation  of  crystals,  in 
part. 

Use  of  funnel  and  filter-paper  to  show  dissolved  substances. 

Application  of  these  phenemena  to  fogs,  clouds,  snow,  rain,  formation 

of  soils,  erosion,  etc. 

THE  FUNGI  GROUP,  including  mushrooms  and  the  like,  puff-balls,  geasters, 
moulds,  lichens.  Place  of  growth,  spore  surfaces,  discharge  of 
spores,  etc.  Collect  as  many  varieties  as  possible.  Compare  the 
various  forms  studied. 

Examples  of  parasitic  plants,  such  as  mistletoe  and  dodder;  their  life 

history. 
FINE  TREE.    (In  season  of  casting  pollen.) 


APPENDIX  187 

MOSQUITO.  Care  of  eggs;  larvae  and  pupae,  general  appearance  in  each 
stage;  movements  of  larvae,  how  accomplished;  feeding,  molting, 
movements  of  pupae,  breathing,  change  to  adult  mosquito. 

ELECTIVE. 

SELECT  any  two  subjects  from  Elective  list  No.  2.  (see  poslea). 
SELECT  one  subject  from  an  outside  source. 


Fifth  Grade. 
PRESCRIBED. 

GROWTH  of  pistil  to  the  fruit  in  dandelion,  burr  clover,  geranium,  poppy, 
sweet  pea.    At  least  any  other  five  may  be  substituted  for  these 
at  the  convenience  of  the  teacher. 
THE  MAGNET.     Properties  and  uses. 

MARINE  LIFE.  Crabs  and  shrimps  (or  lobsters).  Observation  of  motions, 
by  what  parts  and  how  accomplished.  Study  of  appendages, 
attachment  to  body;  the  joints,  their  forms  and  uses.  Study  of 
body,  its  divisions  and  segments  which  compose  it.  Comparison 
of  the  two.  Comparison  with  some  insect  already  studied. 
FRUITS.  Use  of  edible  parts. 

Change  in  fruit  by  cultivation  and  selection. 

Structure  of  the  fruit,  its  parts,   their  arrangement  in  reference  to 

each  other. 

How  green  fruit  becomes  ripe. 
Digestion  of  starch  in  the  human  body. 
Use  of  sugar  in  plant  life;  in  animal  life. 
FLOWERING  PLANTS.     Work  of  the  flower. 

Parts  of  the  flowers  seen  in  as  many  forms  as  possible. 

Place  of  minute  beginnings  of  seeds  in  ovary ;  extension  of  the  ovary 

into  style  and  stigma;  stamens  with  pollen;  corolla;  calyx. 
Provision  for  fertilization  as  seen  in  lupine,  locust  tree*  peas,  beans, 

clovers,  or  any  plant  of  the  Leguminoeae. 

Use  of  corolla,  calyx,  honey,  perfume,  color,  etc.,  to  the  plant. 
Provision  for  fertilization  as  seen  in  petunia,  morning  glory,  and  the 

like. 

SPIDERS.    Collection  and  care  of  living  spiders  in  jars  and  schoolrooms. 
Pood. 


1 88  NATURE   STUDY 

Web.    What  kind  of  a  spider  made  it,  bow  did  it  weave  it,  wbat  use  in 

made  of  it  ? 

Spinning  organs,  position,  structure,  bow  used. 
General  appearance  of  spiders. 
Different  families  of  spiders  witb  characteristics. 

ELECTIVE. 

SELECT  two  subjects  from  Elective  List  No.  2. 
SELECT  one  subject  from  any  outside  source. 


Sixth  Grade, 
PRESCRIBED. 
PENDULUM.     Construction. 

Lengtb  of  a  pendulum  that  vibrates  once  in  one  second. 

Pendulum  witb  same  length  but  different  weigbts. 

Construction  of  pendulum  tbat  vibrates  once  in  two  seconds,  once  in 

three  seconds,  three  times  in  one  second. 
Use  of  pendulum  as  a  time  instrument. 

POND  LIFE.     The  green  scum  of  Ponds. 
Diatoms. 

AQUATIC    INSECTS.     Dragon   flies;    water  beetles;   caddis  worms;  pond 

skaters,  or  watef  striders ;  water  boatmen ;  whirligig  beetles. 
Collection,  care  and  study  of  life  history  of  three  kinds,  or  substitute 
any  other  three  kinds  of  water  insects. 

METALS.    Collection  of  metals,  such  as  copper,  lead,  zinc,  iron,  aluminum, 

platinum,  etc. 

Properties,  as  relative  hardness,  flexibility,  ease  of  welding,  etc. 
Alloys. 
Uses. 

How  metals  are  taken  from  their  ores. 
Application  to  mining. 

CRYSTALS.    Formation  of,  to  illustrate,  occurrence  in  minerals. 

ELECTIVE. 

SELECT  two  subjects  from  Elective  List  No.  2. 
SELECT  one  subject  from  any  outside  source. 


APPENDIX  189 

Seventh  Grade. 

PRESCRIBED. 
DISTILLATION  of  water. 
FJROST  AND  ICE.    Formation  of  frost. 

Temperature  melting  ice. 

Temperature  freezing  mixtures. 

Why  ice  floats. 

Manufacture  of  artificial  ice. 

Application  to  geographical  features. 
LIFE  HISTORY  OF  PERNS. 
OXYGEN  AND  CARBONIC  Aero.    Preparation. 

Properties. 

Uses. 

Application  to  human  life,  plant  life,  etc. 

DIFFUSION  OF  GASES. 

STUDY  of  the  candle  flame.    Parts  of  the  flame. 

How  the  flame  is  produced. 

Use  of  different  material  for  producing  flame. 
ILLUMINATING  GAS.    Preparation  of  gas  in  the  schoolroom. 

Process  of  burning  in  coal  and  wood. 

Preparation  of  gas  for  use  in  city. 

Visit  to  gas  works. 
PLANT  PHYSIOLOGY.     Growth  and  use  of  root  hairs. 

The  plant's  food. 

Show  that  plants  take  up  water. 

Show  that  water  escapes  from  plants'  leaves. 

Trace  course  of  water  absorbed  by  roots. 

Examination  of  stomata. 

Material  of  soil  dissolved  in  water  and  used  by  plant*. 

Making,  using  and  storing  starch  in  the  plant. 

Food  of  mushrooms,  moulds  and  the  like. 

Food  of  lichens. 

Food  of  mistletoe,  dodder,  etc. 

ELECTIVE. 

SELECT  one  subject  from  Elective  List  No.  2. 
SFLECT  one  subject  from  any  outside  source. 


190  NATURE   STUDY 

PRESCRIBED.  Each  member  of  the  class  is  to  select  an  experiment  or  a 
lesson  on  some  plant  or  animal  which  he  is  to  present  to  the 
class,  using  his  own  apparatus  or  material  that  he  himself  has 
prepared. 


Eighth  Grade. 

PRESCRIBED. 
BIRDS.    Part  of  the  work,  if  not  all,  given  in  the  notes. 

CAPILLARY  ATTRACTION.  Illustration  of  capillary  attraction  by  means 
of  set  of  tubes,  sheets  of  glass,  a  sponge,  cloth,  lump  of  sugar, 
etc. 

Capillary  attraction  in  gravel,  sand,  clay. 

Application  to  plant  life  in  California. 

Reason  for  cultivation  of  orchards. 
SOILS.    Structure. 

Kinds  of  soil. 

Relation  of  soil  to  growing  roots. 

Relation  of  soil  to  percolating  water. 
PRESSURE  of  liquids  and  air. 

Why  bodies  float. 

Why  some  bodies  float  more  above  the  water  than  others. 

Why  some  bodies  sink. 

Effect  of  some  floating  bodies  in  lighter  or  heavier  liquids. 

Application  to  ventilation  and  winds. 

Construction  and  use  of  barometer. 
CURRENTS  in  water. 

Currents  in  boiling  water\ 

Currents  in  vessels  of  different  shapes. 

Effect  of  unequal  heating  on  currents. 
CURRENTS  in  air. 

Exploration  of  schoolroom  for  currents  of  air. 

Construction  of  hot  air  balloon. 

Application  to  winds  and  to  ventilation. 

ELECTIVE. 
SELECT  one  subject  from  any  outside  source. 


APPENDIX 

Elective  List  No.  1. 


191 


For  Primary  Grades  (1st,  2d  and  3rd). 


Caterpillars. 

Bees. 

Ante. 

Crabs,  shrimps,  lobsters  and  clams. 

Earthworms. 

Coverings  of  animals. 

Snails  and  slugs. 


Common  minerals. 

Lead  pencil. 

Fish  in  an  aquarium. 

Spiders. 

Ferns,  mosses. 

Mushrooms,  moulds,  lichens,  etc. 


Elective  List  No.  2. 


For  Grammar  Grades. 


Germination  and  growth  of  seeds. 
Distribution  of  seeds. 
Moths,  butterflies  and  caterpillars. 
Development  of  frogs  and  salaman- 
der's eggs. 

Development  of  mosquitoes. 
Breathing  of  insects. 
Ants. 

Bees  and  wasps. 

Tond  life  including  aquatic  insects. 
Coverings  of  animals. 


Fruits. 

Effect  of  heat  on  gases,  liquids  and 

solids,  or  any  of  the 
Physical  experiments. 
The  fungi  group. 
Marine  life  such  as  crabs,  shrimps, 

etc. 

Flowering  plants. 
Oxygen. 
Carbonic  acid. 
Birds. 


INDEX. 


Page 

Air,  Composition  of 149 

"    Expanded  by  Heat 83 

"    Pressure  of 171 

Animals,  Covering  of 141 

Ants'  Nests 147 

Aquaria,  for  Schoolroom 48 

Back  Swimmer 72 

Balloon,  Hot  Air 89 

Ballooning  of  Spiders 118 

Bee  and  the  Lupine 51 

Bee,  Cross  Fertilization  of  Lupines,  54 

"    Leg  of         57-58 

Bird  Fauna  of  a  Locality 181 

'•     Skins,  How  Obtained 178 

Birds 177 

B  rds,  Bill  of 177 

Colors  of 180 

Feet  of 177 

Migratory 181 

Nesting  of 180 

Notes  of  Habits  of 181 

Residents 181 

Song  of 181 

Black  Flies 66 

Boiling 92 

Boletus 40 

Breathing  of  Insects 174 

Breeding  Cages  for  Insects 46 

Brook  Insects 60 

Caddice  Flies 65 

Candle  Flame 154 

Capillary  Attraction 100 

Carbonic  Acid 128.  152 

"    Test  for 152 

Caterpillars 45-46 

Preserving 33 

Caullcle 26 

Chlorophyll 130 

Chrysalids 45 

Clams 146 

Clay 99 

Clouds,  How  Composed 92 

Cocoons 45-46 

Collecting  Net  for  Insects 30 

Collection  of  Insects,  How  to  Make,  30 

Condensation 93 

Conifers,  Fertilization  of 58 

Cotyledons 26 

Covering  of  Animals 141 

Crabs 146 

Cross  Fertilization 54 

Crystallization,  Solution  and   ...    95 
Crystals,  How  to  Obtain.  ...     96 

Cultivation  of  Soil,  Reason  for  ...   100 


Page 

Currents  in  Air  and  Water 87 

Currents  in  Water 90 

Damsel  Flies 78 

Dandelion 7 

Dandelion,  Seed  Forming 7 

Diatoms 127 

Diffusion  of  Gases 153 

Dodder 135 

Dragon  Flies 74 

"     Feeding  Habits  of  ...  76 

"         "      Transformations  of .  .  76 

Duck,  Bill  and  Feet  of 179 

Earthworms 140 

Eggs  of  Frogs,  Toads  and  Salaman- 
ders  137 

Embryo,  of  Plant 26 

Eschscholtzia  . 51 

Expansion  of  Air  by  Heat 83 

"         "  Solids  by  Heat   ....     85 
"  Water  by  Heat  ....     81 

Feathers 141 

Ferns 120 

Fertilization  of  Flower 53 

Flame  of  Candle  .     154 

Flower,  Parts  of  a 52 

Flowering  Plants 128 

Fogs,  How  Composed 92 

Food  of  Plants 128 

Frogs,  Eggs  of 127 

Frost 101 

Fruits 130 

"       Ripening  of 131 

Fruit  Trees,  Fertilization  of  Flowers,    58 

Fungi 35 

Fungi,  Feeding  Habits  of 43 

Fungus,  Life  History  of 39 

Gas  Making  .                                      .  154 

Gases 149 

Gases,  Diffusion  of 153 

Geaster 41 

Giant  Water  Bug 74 

Gills  of  Water  Insects 60 

Graphite 164 

Grasshopper,  Breathing  of 174 

Gravel 99 

Hawks,  Feet  and  Beak  of 179 

Heat 79 

Heat  Expands  Air 83 

Solids 85 

"            "        Water 81 


INDEX. 


Page 

Ice,  Experiments  with   .......  101 

Ichneumon  Flies  ...........  47 

Insectary  ...............  45 

Insect  Cases  .............  33 

"      Killing  Bottle  ........  31 

"      Labels  .............  34 

"      Net  ..............  30 

"      Pins  ..............  32 

Insects,  Brook  ............  60 

Insects,  How  to  Make  a  Collection 

Of  .................  30 

Insects,  Pond  ...........      .  68 

"         Rearing,  in  the  Schoolroom,  45 

Insects,  Some  Water  ........  60 


Killing  Bottle  for  Insects 


31 


Labels  for  Insects 31 

Lead  Pencils 164 

Lichens 133 

Liquids,  Pressure  of 171 

Lobsters 145 

Lupine,  Character  of  Flower  .      .  .  55 

Cross  Fertilization  of   ...  54 

Lupine,  The  Bee  and  the 51 

Magnets 158 

Magnetic  Needle,  To  Determine  Di- 
rection of 159 

Magnetic  Needle,  Variation  of  ...    159 

Magnetism 158 

Maple  Seeds 10 

Marine  Life 145 

May  Flies 60 

Melon  Flowers  Fertilized  by  Insects,    59 

Metals  and  Minerals 166 

Metals,  Properties  of 166 

Minerals,  Metals  and 166 

Mistletoe 135 

Monterey  Pine  Seed  .........     10 

Moon 168 

Moon,  Apparatus  to  Study  Motion  of,  169 

"     Movements  of 168 

Mosquito 12 

Mosquito,  Collecting  and  Rearing   .     12 

"  Eggs 12,  18 

Moss  on  Oaks 124 

Mosses 124 

Mould  on  Bread 42 

Moulds 41 

Moulting  of  Feathers 143 

Mucor 43 

Mushroom 37 

Nests  of  Ants 147 

Net  for  Collecting  Insects 30 

North  Star,  Revolution  of 159 

Ovary  of  Flower 52 

Owl,  Feet  and  Beak  of 179 

Oxygen 149 

Combustion  of  Substances  in,  151 
How  to  Make  .  .  .149 


Page 

Parasitic  Insects 47 

Parasitic  Plants 135 

Pencils,  Lead,  How  Made 164 

Pendulum 161 

Petunia 56-57 

Phenonema  of  Non-living  Things  .  .     79 

Pigeon,  Structure  of 177 

Pine  Tree 133 

Pinning  Insects 32 

Pins,  Insect ...        32 

Pistil  of  Flower 52 

Pitawood  for  Insect  Boxes    ....        33 

Plants,  Food 128 

Plants  Without  Flowers 120 

Plumule 26 

Pollen  of  Flower 53 

"       "  Pine  Tree 133 

Pond  Insects 68 

"      Scum 126 

Poppy,  California 52 

Potato,  Starch  in 132 

Pressure  of  Air  and  Liquids  .  .  .  .171 

Prothallium  of  Fern 120 

Puff  Balls 40 

Rearing  Insects  in  the  Schoolroom,  45 

Root  Cap 28 

"     Systems 27 

"     Tip      28 

Roots,  Growth  of. 24 


Salamanders,  Eggs  of  . 
Sand  . 


Sandpiper,  Bill  and  Legs  of. 
Scum,  Green,  of  Ponds.  .  .  . 
Seed,  Coats  of 

"      Leaves 

"  Structure  of 

Seeds 

Germination  of  .  .  .  . 

"  of  Pine  Trees 

Setting  Board  for  Insects  .  . 
Shrimps 


L  lugs,  Snails  and      

Smoke,  What  it  is 

Snails  and  Slugs 

Snipe,  Bill  and  Legs  of 

Soap  Bubbles 

Soil 

Solids  Expanded  by  Heat 

Solution  and  Crystallization .  .  .  . 

Spawn  of  Mushroom 

Sphinx  Moth,  Visiting  Petunia  .  .  . 

Spiders,  About 

Spider,  Structure  of  .  . 

1        Webs 

"      Spinning  of 

Spiders,  Catching 

Danger  of  Bite  of 

Eyes  of 

Fangs  of 

Field  Work 

Identifying  and  Collecting 


137 

99 
179 
126 

26 


22 

22 

133 

33 

145 

139 

156 

139 

179 

162 

99 

85 

95 

38 

57 

103 

106 

112 

116 

103 

103 

107 

107 

108 

,  103 


INDEX. 


Page 

Spiders,  Preserving 33 

Schoolroom  Work 103 

Spinning  Organs  of   ....  107 

The  Crab 110 

The  Jumping 109 

The  Running 109 

Trapdoor Ill 

Spiracles  of  Grasshopper 175 

Spirogyra 126 

Spore  Print  of  Fungus 40 

Spores  of  Ferns 181 

"        "  Moss 125 

"       "  Mushroom 37 

Spreading  Wings  of  Butterflies ...  33 

Stamens  of  Flower 53 

Starch  Changing  to  Sugar 132 

"      Made  by  Plant 130 

"      Tested  for  in  Fruits 132 

"     "  Potato 132 

Stigma  of  Flower 53 

Stomata  of  Leaf  .  .- 129 

Stone  Flies 60 

Style  of  Flower 53 

Sugar  Made  from  Starch      132 

Surface  Film  .            15 

»wallow,  Mouth  and  Feet  of 179 


Page 

Tarantulas 110 

Temperature  of  Ice 101 

Thermometer,  How  to  Make 84 

Toads,  Eggs  of 138 

Toadstool 36 

Tracheae  of  Insects 175 

Trapdoor  Spiders Ill 

Triangle  Spider 117 

Ventilation  in  Miniature  Room  ...     88 
"  Schoolroom 88 

Water  as  Plants' Food 128 

"      Beetles 70 

"  "       Breathing  of 71 

"      Boatmen 72 

"      Bugs 70 

"      Currents  in 90 

"      Expanded  by  Heat 81 

Water  Insects 60 

Webs  of  Spiders 112 

Whirligig  Beetles 68 

Woodpecker.  Bill,  Feet  and  Tail  of ,  179 
Wrigglers 12 


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